Models: Many models are available to help estimate tanoak fuel loads. See the following sources for estimating tanoak's total aboveground biomass: [202,218,228], crown mass: [202,218], crown area: [237], and stem, bark, and branch masses: [202,218]. See Growth models for predicting rates of tanoak sprout growth after fire.

Fuels management studies: A few studies provide results from fuel reduction treatments using thinning and/or prescribed burning in mixed-conifer forests with a tanoak component. Knapp and others [126] compare fuel reduction and fire behavior of early-season (June) and late-season (September-October) prescribed fires in mixed-conifer forest in Sequoia National Park. Stephens and Moghaddas [207,208] discuss results of a Blodgett Forest Research Station fuels reduction study using crown thinning and thinning from below followed by mechanical treatment (mastication of understory trees), mechanical treatment followed by prescribed fire, prescribed fire alone, and a no-treatment control. They discuss benefits of retaining some coarse woody debris and creating snags with prescribed fire for wildlife benefit, and describe treatment impacts to forest structure [207].

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY (adapted from [211]):
Tree with adventitious buds, a sprouting burl, and/or root suckers
Tall shrub, adventitious buds and/or a sprouting burl
Small shrub, adventitious buds and/or a sprouting burl
Crown residual colonizer (on site, initial community)
Initial off-site colonizer (off site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources)

FIRE EFFECTS

IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
	Tanoak sprouts. Photo courtesy of Lynn Watson.

Tanoak burls are usually at least partially buried in mineral soil and survive most surface and crown fires. Surface fire may kill the burls of seedlings and saplings [118,127], but the burls of large tanoaks typically survive even severe fires [2,115,247] that completely consume litter and duff surrounding the burls [2,115].

Fire generally kills tanoak acorns in litter or duff [73].

Seedlings are not as common on burns as sprouts [144], but postfire seedling establishment is ecologically important. It provides opportunities for tanoak to colonize new sites and increases genetic diversity on burns where tanoak clones are numerous [131]. Animal caches [131,140] and on-site, surviving parent tanoaks [144] are likely seed sources for postfire tanoak seedling establishment. Studies documenting establishment and mortality rates of tanoak seedlings on burns are few. Rodents cache tanoak acorns on new burns [245] but prefer caching acorns on sites that provide more cover [120], so postfire rodent caching may not be important in the first few postfire years. After that, rodents may increase acorn caching as tanoak and other sprouting woody plants provide increasingly better hiding cover on burns. As of 2008, studies documenting Steller's jay or western scrub-jay dispersal of tanoak acorns onto burns were lacking.

Sprouting is the primary method of postfire tanoak regeneration, and tanoak sprouts are usually abundant on a newly-burned site where tanoak was present before fire. Griffin [76] and Agee [4] noted tanoak sprouts in the Ventana Wilderness, California, 10 months after the stand-replacing Marble Cone Fire. Tanoak cover and density have generally increased as a result of fire exclusion [18]. Extensive, pure tanoak stands are common in northwestern California, resulting from fire and/or logging that occurred in the mid-1900s (Thornburgh 1994, personal communication in [154]). Broadcast burning in clearcuts where tanoak was present before harvest can produce a dense tanoak stand [153]. Nineteen years after clearcutting and broadcast burning of a mixed-conifer forest on the Challenge Experimental Forest, McDonald [144] reported that tanoak stump sprouts were "scattered throughout and, where present, outgrew all other vegetation". Sprouts numbered up to 100/burl. Tanoak seedlings were few and tended to grow where a mature tanoak grew before logging [144]. See Roy's [188,189] study in Growth for further information on growth rate and development of tanoak sprouts after fire or logging.

Arno and Allison-Bunnell [13] stated that in redwood-Douglas-fir forests, frequent burning "physiologically stresses" subcanopy tanoaks. Historically, frequent surface fires may have kept growth of tanoaks and other sprouting hardwoods low, creating relatively open understories [13,18].

In mixed-evergreen conifer/hardwood forests, relative postfire abundance of tanoak depends upon fire severity and availability of conifer seed sources. Fires severe enough to kill overstory conifers and eliminate conifer seed sources generally favor tanoak over conifers [196]. Agee [2] reviews postfire successional trajectories that tanoak has followed. Following "intense fire" in Douglas-fir/tanoak stands, either species may dominate the stand, or they may codominate. If tanoak dominates, it usually shades out and excludes Douglas-fir until the tanoak canopy begins to break up, about 60 years after fire. When many Douglas-fir seedlings establish early in postfire succession, Douglas-fir can attain dominance after 15 to 30 postfire years, growing more quickly than tanoak sprouts after that (see Growth). Tanoak may codominate or dominate the stand in late postfire succession, when the Douglas-fir stand begins to break up. Successive, stand-replacement fires may push Douglas-fir/tanoak succession towards a stand dominated by tanoak and other hardwoods [2]. Frost and Sweeny [61] describe similar successional pathways for Douglas-fir/tanoak stands in the Siskiyou Mountains:

• In the absence of fire, importance of tanoak and other hardwoods increases, but long-lived Douglas-fir remains codominant. Species composition remains "somewhat stable" over decades.

• Frequent, low-severity fires thin small Douglas-firs, creating canopy gaps that allow for regeneration. Tanoak and other hardwoods sprout. Over decades, successive low-severity fires result in multiaged stands and fine-grained patchiness.

• After a moderate-severity fire, tanoak and other hardwood sprouts may codominate, and large, scattered Douglas-firs produce many seedlings, which eventually overtop the hardwoods.

• After a severe fire, few young Douglas-firs survive. Tanoak and other hardwoods may dominate for decades until Douglas-fir invades from off-site seed sources.

Studies conducted after the Hayfork Fire Complex and the Biscuit Fire illustrate the effects of unprecidentedly large wildfires (see Changes in fire regime) and show how tanoak responds to such wildfires. See Silvicultural management and postfire succession for a discussion of effects of and tanoak response to the Hayfork Fire Complex.

The Biscuit Fire was of mixed severity [182,247], with about 30% of the area lightly burned, 26% moderately burned, and 44% severely burned [183,247]. Douglas-fir/tanoak was the predominant cover type burned: 65% of the total burn area, or 204,800 acres (82,900 ha). Thirty-three percent of Douglas-fir types burned at moderate or high severity. Tanoak was the dominant hardwood cover type burned: 63% of the total hardwood area ((76,500 acres) (31,000 ha)) [183]. The Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) team found fire severity in the tanoak cover type was mostly very low and low severity; less than 15% was classified as moderate or high severity [183]. Prefire size of tanoaks was mostly mature trees (32% of all tanoaks present), with few pole-sized trees and almost no saplings and seedlings [22]. Tanoaks sprouted soon after the wildfire passed [136,247]. Surveys taken in August and September 2002—before the fire had gone out in some areas—showed tanoak sprouts throughout the Douglas-fir/tanoak and tanoak cover types, including severely burned areas [247]. A portion of Biscuit Fire burned through permanent plots on experimental Douglas-fir/tanoak units. Fire histories show an 80- to 110-year fire-return interval, mixed-severity fire regime for the experimental sites. On experimental plots, fire was most severe in a) plantations of 5-year-old Douglas-firs; b) 5-year-old plantations of mixed, early-seral conifers; and c) mature, thinned stands that had not been treated with postthinning prescribed fire [33,183]. On thinned-only plots, severe surface fire consumed the "extensive" fine woody fuels left from thinning and the 5-year-old canopy of hardwood sprouts (mostly tanoak) [183]. Douglas-fir mortality, measured in postfire month 22, was nearly 100% on plantation and thinned-only plots, and tanoak abundance was greatly reduced from prefire levels. Tanoak frequency on the 5-year-old plantations dropped from 80% in 1998, 4 years before the fire, to 20% at postfire month 22. Fire severity and tree mortality were least in mature stands that had been thinned and underburned 1 year before the Biscuit Fire. About 98% of trees on thinned, underburned plots had bole damage, but tree mortality at postfire month 22 was only 2% [33]. Sparse fuels completely stopped fire spread into one thinned, underburned plot [183]. Using a fire behavior model, Raymond and Peterson [182] projected that thinned-only treatments reduced canopy and ladder fuels but the potential for crown fire did not change in thinned stands not subsequently treated with prescribed fire because thinning increased surface fuels. Projected fire intensity and flame lengths were greatest on those stands; and in fact, the wildfire reached into the tanoak subcanopy and crowned, substantiating their modeled findings. Stands that were thinned and underburned before the Biscuit Fire had reduced canopy, ladder, and surface fuels compared to thinned-only sites; so surface fire intensity was less, and potential for crown behavior was reduced. Consequently, the Biscuit Fire did not crown in thinned and underburned stands [182,183]. About 350,000 acres (140,000 ha) of the Douglas-fir/tanoak type burned at severities high enough that the conifer overstory was reduced by at least half. Sessions and others [196] caution that without management intervention, hardwoods and shrubs in general—and tanoak in particular—are likely to dominate postfire succession for decades in areas where conifer seed sources were greatly reduced by wildfire, especially if reburns occur before early-seral conifers become large enough to resist fire damage.

Fire effects and postfire response models: Scanlon and Valachovic [195] compared FARSITE, a fire behavior model, predictions of fire behavior and postfire over- and understory damage after the Canoe Fire in Redwoods State Park to a postfire inventory of fire damage. Redwood-Douglas-fir/tanoak stands were modeled and inventoried. FARSITE successfully projected fire perimeter advance and flame lengths, but predicted and actual fireline intensities were poorly correlated. Prefire fuel load data would have increased ability of FARSITE to predict fire intensity [195].

Kobziar and others [127] conducted fall prescribed burning in a mixed-conifer forest on the Blodgett Forest Research Station to develop models for predicting tree mortality based upon tree diameter, percentage crown volume scorch, scorch height, and fuel consumption. Tanoak was mainly represented in the shrub layer. Mortality of small tanoaks was significantly higher than mortality of 6 associated overstory tree species (P=0.05). The fire killed the only large tanoak present on study plots. Models presented in this study can be used to predict tree density reductions from prescribed fire in Sierran mixed-conifer forests [127].

See Growth models for information on predicting rates of postfire development of tanoak sprouts.

Tanoak sprouts may facilitate conifer seedling establishment on severely burned and other harsh sites [197]. See Other Management Considerations for details.

Silvicultural management and postfire succession: Management activities such as logging and site preparation can alter postfire successional pathways and influence relative composition of hardwoods, including tanoak, in mixed-evergreen forests. In 1994, Weatherspoon and Skinner [244] studied the effects of prefire management on wildfire behavior and damage to the overstory (crown scorch) after the 1987 Hayfork Fire Complex. Study sites were in Douglas-fir-tanoak-Pacific madrone types logged before the wildfire. They found that on sites next to clearcuts, fire behavior and fire effects were greatly influenced by prefire management of the clearcuts. Overstory trees adjacent to clearcuts where slash was not removed after harvest were more likely to sustain crown damage compared to trees near clearcuts that were either machine-piled or broadcast burned after harvest. Management of nearby stands also affected fire damage in plantations, with plantation trees adjacent to uncut stands or partially cut stands with logging damage incurring more crown scorch than trees next to either piled or broadcast-burned sites. Plantation trees next to partially cut stands without postharvest treatment had greatest damage. Conifer plantations with high grass and forb cover and/or at low elevation had significantly more crown scorch compared to plantations with high cover of tanoak and other hardwoods and/or those at high elevation (P<0.001) [244].

A study on the Klamath National Forest, California, was conducted to determine how silvicultural treatments influenced postfire species composition on Douglas-fir/tanoak/deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus) sites 2 years after the Hotelling Fire and on Douglas-fir/tanoak-canyon live oak sites 12 years after the Hog Fire. The 2 sites supported both seral and old-growth forests prior to wildfire. The wildfires removed 100% of the woody plant cover of both seral and old-growth forests. Treatments were: 1) logging and plantation planting 10 to 20 years prior to wildfire, 2) postfire salvage logging, site preparation, and plantation planting, and 3) an unlogged, unplanted control. The study found that the 12-year-old Hog Burn had more shrub and hardwood cover than the 2-year-old Hotelling Burn (P<0.001). Treatment effects were not yet discernible on the Hotelling Burn. On the Hog Burn, unsalvaged sites had more cover of forbs and shrubs than salvaged sites (P=0.006 and P<0.001 for forbs and shrubs, respectively). Cover of hardwoods (including tanoak) and shrubs was greater on salvaged than unsalvaged sites (P=0.007 and P=0.003 for hardwoods and shrubs, respectively). Postfire coverage of tanoak alone was not provided. Old-growth sites had greater postfire cover of hardwoods and conifers, and less forb coverage, than seral sites (P=0.0041, P<0.001, and P<0.001 for hardwoods, conifers, and forbs, respectively). There were no significant differences in vegetation cover between planted and unplanted sites. The researchers predicted that tanoak and other hardwoods would continue to dominate salvaged sites for decades, probably interfering with growth of young Douglas-firs. They recommend frequent understory burning of mixed-evergreen forests to reduce the likelihood of stand-replacement burns such as the Hotelling and Hog fires [214].

Researchers recommend frequent prescribed surface fires to reduce fire hazard in mixed-evergreen forests and mixed-conifer forests with a tanoak component [5,18,40,214]. Agee and Edmonds [5] caution that site preparation and underburning must occur over large areas to be effective. A 1st fire in an area where fire has long been excluded consumes many fuels, but small-diameter trees killed by prescribed fire create new dead fuels. They recommend a 2nd fire within 10 years of the 1st to reduce fire hazard and open the understory. Collins and others [40] provide thinning and fire prescriptions used to reduce basal area of overstory trees and understory plant density on the Blodgett Forest Research Station. Treatment stands were in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest with tanoaks in the overstory [40].

Fuel mastication translocates dead and live tanoak and other midstory fuels to the forest floor, increasing loading of dead woody surface fuels. On mixed-evergreen forest study sites in southwestern Oregon and northern California, mastication of live tanoak, Pacific madrone, and manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.) understories significantly increased 1- and 10-hour time-lag fuels and total woody fuel loads compared to untreated sites (P<0.001). Across sites, surface fuel depth did not predict surface fuel loads (R²=0.24, P=0.22), probably due to differences in machinery and operator experience. The researchers were therefore unable to develop a model predicting total fuel loading after mastication, and called for further modeling research to predict how mastication affects fuel loads in mixed-evergreen forests [112].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE AND LIVESTOCK
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Ralph and others [179] provide inventories of breeding birds and small mammals using Douglas-fir/tanoak habitat in southwestern Oregon and northwestern California. Rosenberg and Raphael [187] provide a survey of vertebrates using Douglas-fir/tanoak habitat on the Six Rivers, Klamath, and Shasta-Trinity National Forests, California. Welsh and Lindi [246] give an inventory of herptiles using Douglas-fir/tanoak habitats in Oregon and northern California.

Young tanoaks may tolerate browsing better, or are selected less often, than associated oaks. In the Santa Lucia Mountains, tanoak seedlings were "heavily browsed" by mule deer. Despite that, tanoak seedlings were growing faster and showing better survivorship than valley oak and interior live oak seedlings [75].

Species of concern: Young- [56] and old-growth Douglas-fir-tanoak and redwood-Douglas-fir-tanoak forests provide favorable habitat for northern spotted owls [102]. A well-developed tanoak or mixed-hardwood subcanopy is an important structural component of both northern spotted owl habitats [128] and those of their main prey, dusky-footed woodrats [230]. Subcanopy structure open enough to allow development of large overstory trees is optimal for northern spotted owls. Dense subcanopies reduce northern spotted owl habitat quality due to reduced hunting success and increased mortality of small-diameter conifer stems, which cannot serve as northern spotted owl nest snags. Canopy gaps increase northern spotted owl habitat quality in dense forests. Thinning and/or prescribed fire may be required for northern spotted owl management in some conifer/tanoak habitats [227]. Studies of redwood-Douglas-fir/tanoak habitat in Humboldt and Del Norte counties, California, showed seral forests with basal areas of 23 to 69 m²/ha gave best reproductive success for northern spotted owls. Such stand structure also tends to increase dusky-footed woodrat populations [230]. Northern spotted owls may use tanoaks for resting and hiding cover. A northern spotted owl in Mendocino County was observed using a tanoak branch fork as a cache site for rodent carcasses [102]. Although they nest in tanoak ecosystems, northern spotted owls do not usually select tanoaks as nest trees [94,227,230]. Dusky-footed woodrats, however, may preferentially select tanoak canopies or downed logs as denning and/or nesting sites [165,180]. California spotted owls use ponderosa pine/hardwood and mixed-conifer/hardwood forests with a tanoak component for nesting habitat [36,79,242]. See the FEIS review of spotted owl for further information on managing forests as spotted owl habitat.

Marbled murrelets use redwood/Douglas-fir/tanoak habitat for nesting [199]. Mixed-evergreen forests with tanoak provide habitat for fishers [254,255]. Rosenberg and Raphael [187] identified fishers, ringtails, spotted owls, sharp-shinned hawks, blue grouse, pileated woodpeckers, and Pacific giant salamanders as species of potential concern due to vulnerability of Douglas-fir/tanoak forests on the Six Rivers, Klamath, and Shasta-Trinity National Forests, California, to fragmentation.

Livestock readily consume tanoak acorns, although browse use is variable. Cattle, domestic goats, and domestic and feral pigs eat the acorns [192,224].

Palatability/nutritional value: Palatability of tanoak browse may vary with phenological stage and availability of more palatable browse. Trichomes on twigs and young leaves are distasteful [192,224] and easily inhaled during foraging [224]. Cattle may selectively browse mature leaves [124], which are not tomentose. On the Blodgett Forest Research Station, tanoak was the most preferred browse of cattle, comprising 8% to 39% of the total cattle summer diet [124]. In general, tanoak browse is rated palatable to mule deer and unpalatable to cattle and domestic horses, sheep, and goats [192].

Tanoak acorns have a high fat content [224] and are palatable to cattle and a number of wildlife species [224]. They are rated highly palatable to mule deer [192]. Wolf [253] provides a nutritional analysis of tanoak acorns.

Cover value: Tanoak provides hiding, thermal, and nesting cover for many mammal and bird species [18,20]. For example, band-tailed pigeons in Humboldt County, California, used tanoaks for nesting cover. Overall stand structure of the Oregon white oak-Pacific madrone-tanoak forest was dense [67]. Other information on wildlife use of tanoak cover is provided in Importance to Wildlife and Livestock.

Tanoak's common name comes from the past use of tannin, extracted from tanoak bark, for tanning saddle and other heavy leathers. In the early twentieth century, tanoak was so heavily harvested for its tannin that some managers expressed concern for its eventual elimination (reviews by [154,189]), [172,253].

Native Americans preferred tanoak acorns over those of all western oak species for food [38,156,189,224]. After leaching the acorns, they ground tanoak acorns and used the meal in breads, porridges, and puddings [38,189]. The Costanoan used a tanoak bark infusion as a wash for facial sores and to tighten loose teeth (review by [54]).

Tanoak can slow overall growth rates of young seral conifers [48,49,87,104,148,178,223]. A study in southwestern Oregon, for example, found competition with tanoak sprouts for light and water reduced Douglas-fir sapling growth [87,88]. Complete removal of tanoak sprouts maximized Douglas-fir growth, while removal of 50% or more of the tanoak sprouts produced a productive, mixed-conifer-hardwood stand [89]. A study on the Challenge Experimental Forest found tanoak outcompeted ponderosa pine seedlings for space, and that reducing tanoak density increased ponderosa pine seedling growth rate [169]. Atzet and others [20] recommend controlling tanoak sprouts soon after fire or logging on timber sites. They write "the time and energy required to shift the dominance in favor of the crop tree species increases significantly with delays". They emphasize that unit boundaries and sizes, site preparation, cutting prescriptions, and timely postharvest or postfire planting can all be modified to minimize growth of tanoak and sprouting shrubs, reducing the need for chemical control [18,20]. Historically, surface fires may have helped keep cover of tanoak and other hardwoods low, so frequent preharvest underburning may reduce the need for postharvest tanoak control [18].

Despite its ability to outcompete conifers, tanoak is an important part of mixed-conifer-hardwood ecosystems, providing species and structural diversity and wildlife food. Extreme reduction or elimination of tanoak by chemical or other means may actually slow conifer establishment [157,197] by removing shade protection, which can facilitate conifer seedling establishment on some sites. A survey of severely burned Douglas-fir/tanoak sites in the Klamath and Siskiyou mountains showed conifer seedling abundance was positively associated with cover of sprouting hardwoods and shrubs [197]. On an Oregon clearcut, Douglas-fir and white fir established beneath tanoak sprout clumps. Light intensity was reduced under tanoak, but was "sufficient" for conifer growth. Soil moisture content was generally higher under tanoak than in the open. The researcher concluded that on hot southwestern aspects and other harsh sites, clumps of tanoak and other sprouting hardwood species provide nurse sites for conifer seedlings, but the hardwoods would probably slow conifer growth in later growth stages [157].

Control:
Chemical control— Researchers at Oregon State University's Forest Research Laboratory found picloram + triclopyr spraying gave 90% to 100% tanoak control for 2 years; 2,4-D (water carrier), glyphosate, or triclopyr gave 60% to 90% control; and 2,4-D (oil carrier) or picloram + 2,4-D gave 25% to 60% control [42]. Trials in coastal northern California found painting newly-harvested tanoak stumps with 2,4-D in October gave nearly 100% control of tanoak sprouts for 3 years [119]. Tappeiner and others [224] provide an in-depth analysis of chemical treatments used to control tanoak sprouts on Douglas-fir/tanoak timber sites in Oregon.

Slashing— Hobbs [96] reviews strategies for manual control of tanoak including effects of various timings, frequencies, and intensities of slashing. McDonald and Fiddler [149,150] analyze manual and chemical treatments successfully used to control tanoak on a medium-productive Douglas-fir plantation on the Six Rivers National Forest.

Damaging agents: Tanoaks are windfirm and fairly resistant to insect and fungal attacks until fire or other injury damages the bole. Several root- and stem-rotting fungi may infest injured tanoaks. Of these, Armillaria mellea generally causes greatest damage. Several insects feed on tanoak, but their damage is usually minor. California oakworms (Phryganidia californica) may cause local defoliations [224]. Until the mid-1990s, tanoak was relatively disease-free. Since then, the forest disease sudden oak death has become an extremely serious threat to tanoak [35].

Tanoak is more susceptible to damage and death from Phytophthora ramorum, the fungus-like water mold causing sudden oak death disease, than any other known North American plant. Moist, mixed-evergreen and redwood/tanoak forests are the water mold's primary habitat in North America [11,35,64,184,241]. Phytophthora ramorum infection is nearly always fatal to tanoaks, although mature trees may take several years to die [11,241]. All sizes and ages of tanoak are susceptible to leaf, branch, bole, bark, and/or root infection [35]. Sudden oak death disease has caused extensive mortality of tanoaks in Oregon and coastal California [35,43,55,63,166]. Tanoaks in large, continuous forests may be more susceptible to infection than tanoaks in fragmented forests, where spread of the water mold's spores is apparently more limited [43]. Field monitoring in Marin County, California, showed a progression of total infection rates (tanoak + all oak species) of 39.0% in 2000 to 62.4% in 2003, with a consummate rise in mortality from 3.8% to 9.4% [35]. Fuel loads may increase as a result of mortality from sudden oak death disease.

Phytophthora ramorum is apparently nonnative, although its geographic origin is uncertain [184]. Based on genetic studies that showed a "limited gene pool" for North American Phytophthora ramorum populations compared to European populations, Garbelotto and others [64] speculate that the water mold is "an introduced organism, but its actual origin and global genetic structure remain unknown."

The water mold's life cycle is complex, involving tanoaks and red oaks (Erythrobalanus) as primary hosts and many potential intermediate plant hosts, most of which are native. Some intermediate hosts show symptoms of infection and some do not. The California Oak Mortality Task Force [35] website provides lists of known intermediate hosts—including frequently associated species such as California bay (Umbellularia californica), redwood, toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), and Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum)—and information on forest sanitation practices that may reduce sudden oak death disease spread. For further information, see these sources: [55,63,212]. The website Monitoring Sudden Oak Death provides county and regional maps of infestations in California. The Pacific Southwest Region of the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, provides annual monitoring updates on their Forest Pest Conditions website. Fungicides for controlling Phytophthora ramorum are being investigated. Prescribed burning in Marin County did not control Phytophthora ramorum (see Sudden oak death disease); however, further studies on possible control of Phytophthora ramorum with fire were ongoing in 2008. Federal and State agencies in Oregon are testing a clearcut-and-burn treatment for infected sites in southwestern Oregon [64]. Treatment results were not available as of 2008.

Actual methods of Phytophthora ramorum spore dissemination were not documented as of 2008. Suspected mechanisms include wind, water, soil, sap-sucking insects and other animal vectors, and transported firewood [11,45,65]. Bark beetles often attack infected trees [155], but they are apparently secondary agents, not sudden oak death vectors [65].

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