Heritage: 4,500 to 500 years ago

Late Holocene Environment: 4,500 to 500 years ago

The last 4,500 years has seen the return of cooler temperatures, increased humidity and an environment which is broadly similar to that which we have today. The tree lines crept back down the mountains and fir and pine became the dominate tree species. Several lakes were reborn or enlarged and provided more extensive marsh/lake environments. The lakes and marshes of Harney county returned to their "normal" wild fluctuations (from dry to massive in as little as 50 years). The grasslands and juniper/sage steppe would have retreated from their maximum extent in the middle Holocene to a level broadly similar to that of today. Juniper/sage steppe may have been impeded, and grasslands encouraged, by intentional burning by humans of meadows and open timber. The plants and animals which existed in the area are generally the same as those which exist today. Exceptions are American bison, grizzly bear, grey wolf and big horn sheep which were hunted to local extinction in the modern period.

Rendezvous in the Mountains: 4,500 to 500 years ago

Human use of the Malheur Forest changed significantly as the climate cooled and moistened after about 5,000 years ago. In general, both Great Basin and Columbia Plateau sites are far more common during this period than in preceding periods. Many habitation sites from the Late Holocene have been excavated and dates from these sites show fairly continuous occupation in the lowlands. Upland sites on the Malheur Forest are still fairly rare between 4,500 and 3,200 years ago. They then increase in frequency until 500 years ago when upland use again declines. A total of 24 sites have been fairly well dated to this time period and it is probable that the majority of intact sites on the Malheur Forest date to this time. The range of site types and variety of artifact types found in late Holocene sites indicates that the people were exploiting the resources of a wide range of ecological niches. The bow and arrow were introduced into the area around 1300 years ago as shown by the introduction of the smaller Rosegate projectile point (5% of total on Forest) designed to tip arrows as opposed to atlatl darts. This type of projectile point remained dominate until about 700 years ago when it was replaced by Desert Series (6%) and Gunther Barbed (10%) arrow points which were in use until the later part of the modern period. Hopper mortar bases (for pounding roots in a conical basketry mortar) and camas baking ovens indicate techniques of resource procurement used into modern times. In fact, in most ways, the lifestyles of the people of the late Holocene strongly resemble those recorded by the first European visitors to the area. Some of these technological innovations may have been introduced by the Northern Paiutes (or their Numic ancestors) as they expanded north sometime between 3,000 and 1,000 years ago.

Extensive trading networks, which may have started in the middle Holocene, are indicated by obsidian from Strawberry Mountain sources being located in sites far up the John Day River. An olivela shell bead from the Burns District, a stone "donut" fishing weight from Long Creek, a soapstone pendant from Murderers Creek, and various Columbia Plateau style projectile points all enforce the idea of extensive trade. With the increase in population and the existence of significant trading, it seems likely that the quarrying and biface manufacturing of Strawberry Mountain obsidian would have also increased. Large upland valleys on the Forest, such as Bear, Logan, and Fox, seem ideally situated for large gatherings of people from different families and tribes to meet for trade, communal hunting and plant gathering, gambling and socializing. Meetings of this type are well known from the records of early explorers and trappers. In the modern period the European trappers and traders would go to these meeting to trade for furs (hence the name rendezvous given to these meetings by French fur trappers). Meetings of up to several hundred Indians in Bear and Silvies Valleys are mentioned in newspaper articles from the late 1800's. There is every reason to believe gatherings of this type took place before the modern period and hopefully careful study will be able to confirm this. It is quite possible that a precursor of Chinook Jargon (an extensively spoken trading lingo mixing native American, English and French words) was spoken during these gatherings. It is also possible that the traders were quite cosmopolitan and could speak several languages each. The rock paintings (pictographs) found at many points along the Mainstem and South Fork John Day Rivers may indicate one of the major trade and travel routes.

At this time, and continuing into the modern period, the Forest was probably used seasonally in the summer and fall. Although the people of the Blue Mountains did not practice agriculture, with the probable exception of tobacco, it is very likely that they manipulated their environment to favor preferred plant species. This was often done by carefully selecting the numbers and qualities of the plants left unharvested. On a more extreme scale the Indians probably began the practice of burning the upland meadows and travel routes at this time. This practice encourages the production of several preferred plant foods and it appears to have been well established by the modern period. Extensive quarrying of obsidian and associated manufacture of tools and blanks is readily apparent from test excavation and surface inspection of several sites. A cache of large obsidian bi-pointed blanks or knives at a At this time, and continuing into the modern period, the Forest was probably used seasonally in the summer and fall. Although the people of the Blue Mountains did not practice agriculture, with the probable exception of tobacco, it is very likely that they manipulated their environment to favor preferred plant species. This was often done by carefully selecting the numbers and qualities of the plants left unharvested. On a more extreme scale the Indians probably began the practice of burning the upland meadows and travel routes at this time. This practice encourages the production of several preferred plant foods and it appears to have been well established by the modern period. Extensive quarrying of obsidian and associated manufacture of tools and blanks is readily apparent from test excavation and surface inspection of several sites. A cache of large obsidian bi-pointed blanks or knives at a tool workshop near these obsidian quarries may have been as trade items during the late Holocene. Although it is possible that we will locate seasonal upland villages, like those known for this period from Summer Lake, it seems more likely that families gathered and dispersed fairly regularly in a series of temporary camps rather than establishing true villages. Families from dispersed winter villages would have began entering the Malheur Forest uplands in the early summer and would establish camps in the same areas that their family had used for generations. The families would usually stay fairly spread out and go about their tasks as family units. Occasionally large groups of families would gather in the same location and share in special group activities like antelope and rabbit drives, collection and processing of certain plants (notably camas), and social activities like trading, gambling and dancing. Some of these larger gatherings probably drew traders from more distant tribes and became well known rendezvous.