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SPECIES:  Sassafras albidum

Introductory
SPECIES: Sassafras albidum
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Sassafras albidum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. 
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: 
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/sasalb/all.html [].


ABBREVIATION : 
SASALB

SYNONYMS : 
   S.variifolium (Salisb.) K. & Ze.
   S. sassafras (L.) Karsten
   S. officinale (Nees. & Eberm.)
   S. triloba Raf.
   S. triloba var. mollis Raf.


SCS PLANT CODE : 
   SAAL5


COMMON NAMES : 
   sassafras
   white sassafras
   common sassafras
   ague tree
   cinnamon wood
   smelling stick
   saloop
   gumbo file
   mitten tree


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name of sassafras is Sassafras
albidum (Nutt.) Nees. [41,61].

Some authorities consider red sassafras [S. a. var. molle (Raf.)  Fern.]
a distinct variety [8,30,82]; other authors consider it synonymous with
the type variety [53,61,68].


LIFE FORM : 
Tree, Shrub

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 
Sassafras is listed under "Special Concern-Possibly Extirpated" in Maine [22].

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Sassafras albidum
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Sassafras occurs from southwestern Maine west to extreme southern
Ontario and central Michigan; southwest to Illinois, Missouri, eastern
Oklahoma, and eastern Texas; and east to central Florida.  It is extinct
in southeastern Wisconsin, but its range is extending into northern
Illinois [41].


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES10  White - red - jack pine
   FRES12  Longleaf - slash pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES14  Oak - pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES16  Oak - gum - cypress
   FRES17  Elm - ash - cottonwood
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch


STATES : 
     AL  AR  CT  DE  FL  GA  IL  IN  IA  KS
     KY  LA  ME  MD  MA  MI  MS  MO  NH  NJ
     NY  NC  OH  OK  PA  RI  SC  TN  TX  VT
     VA  WV



BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
NO-ENTRY


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K083  Cedar glades
   K089  Black Belt
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K101  Elm - ash forest
   K104  Appalachian oak forest
   K106  Northern hardwoods
   K110  Northeastern oak - pine forest
   K111  Oak - hickory - pine forest
   K112  Southern mixed forest


SAF COVER TYPES : 
    14  Northern pin oak
    15  Red pine
    16  Aspen
    20  White pine - northern red oak - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    40  Post oak - blackjack oak
    43  Bear oak
    44  Chestnut oak
    45  Pitch pine
    46  Eastern redcedar
    50  Black locust
    52  White oak - black oak - northern red oak
    53  White oak
    55  Northern red oak
    57  Yellow-poplar
    60  Beech - sugar maple
    61  River birch - sycamore
    64  Sassafras - persimmon
    70  Longleaf pine
    71  Longleaf pine - scrub oak
    75  Shortleaf pine
    76  Shortleaf pine - oak
    78  Virginia pine - oak
    79  Virginia pine
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine
    83  Longleaf pine - slash pine
    84  Slash pine
    85  Slash pine - hardwood
    88  Willow oak - water oak - diamondleaf oak
   108  Red maple
   110  Black oak


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
The sassafras-persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) cover type is a
successional type common on abandoned farmlands throughout its range.
Sassafras is a common component of the bear oak (Quercus ilicifolia)
type, which is a scrub type on dry sites along the Coastal Plain [41].
In dry pine-oak forests, sassafras sprouts prolifically and is a
shrub-layer dominant [72].  It achieves short-term dominance by producing
extensive thickets where few other woody plants can establish [32].
In the northern parts of its range, sassafras occurs in the understory
of open stands of aspen (Populus spp.) and in northern pin oak (Q.
ellipsoidalis) stands [41].

Common tree associates of sassafras not previously mentioned include
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida),
elms (Ulmus spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), and American beech (Fagus
grandifolia).  Minor associates include American hornbeam (Carpinus
caroliniana), eastern hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), and pawpaw
(Asimina triloba).  On poor sites, particularly in the Appalachian
Mountains, sassafras is frequently associated with black locust (Robinia
pseudoacacia), and sourwood (Oxydendron arboreum).  In old fields with
deep soils, sassafras commonly grows with elms, ashes (Fraxinus spp.),
sugar maple (Acer saccharum), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), and
oaks [41].

Sassafras is listed as a subdominant on subxeric and submesic sites in
the following classification:  Landscape ecosystem classification for
South Carolina [51].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Sassafras albidum
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
Sassafras wood is soft, brittle, light, and has limited commercial value
[41].  It is durable, however, and is used for cooperage, buckets,
fenceposts, rails, cabinets, interior finish, and furniture [24,41,83].
Carey and Gill [9] rate its value for firewood as good, their middle
rating.


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Sassafras leaves and twigs are consumed by white-tailed deer in both
summer and winter.  In some areas it is an important deer food [41].
Sassafras leaf browsers include woodchucks, marsh rabbits, and black
bears [83].  Rabbits eat sassafras bark in winter [8].  Beavers will cut
sassafras stems [15].  Sassafras fruits are eaten by many species of
birds including northern bobwhites [58], eastern kingbirds, great
crested flycatchers, phoebes, wild turkeys, catbirds, flickers, pileated
woodpeckers, downy woodpeckers, thrushes, vireos, and mockingbirds.
Some small mammals also consume sassafras fruits [16,65,75,83].

For most of the above mentioned animals, sassafras is not consumed in
large enough quantities to be important.  Carey and Gill [9] rate its
value to wildlife as fair, their lowest rating.


PALATABILITY : 
Palatability of sassafras to white-tailed deer is rated as good
throughout its range [41].


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
The nutritional value of sassafras winter twigs is fair [67].  Seasonal
changes in nutrient composition of sassafras leaves and twigs has been
reported.  Crude protein ranged from a high of 21.0 percent in April
leaves to a low of 6.1 in January twigs [7].

Sassafras fruits are high in lipids and energy value [85].


COVER VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Sassafras is used for restoring depleted soils in old fields [41].

Sassafras occurs on sites that have been largely denuded of other
vegetation by the combination of frequent fire and toxic emissions from
zinc smelters.  Sassafras persistence on these sites is attributed to
root sprouting; seedling reproduction is severely curtailed by the high
level of toxins in the soil [52].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
Sassafras oil is extracted from the root bark for use by the perfume
industry, primarily for scenting soaps.  It is also used as a flavoring
agent and an antiseptic [41,83].  Large doses of the oil may be narcotic
[83].  Root bark is also used to make tea, which in weak infusions is a
pleasant beverage, but induces sweating in strong infusions.  The leaves
can be used to flavor and thicken soups [41,83].  The mucilaginous pith
of the root is used in preparations to soothe eye irritations [83].

Because of its durability, sassafras was used for dugout canoes by
Native Americans [49].


OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Overstory removal often results in an increase in sassafras stems,
particularly by sprouting [81].  Sassafras thickets may displace more
desirable species for a short time, but few sassafras stems will occupy
space in the overstory [62].  Some herbicides control sassafras [5].
Complete top-kill was achieved with injection of 2,4-D, picloram, and
glyphosate, with no apparent sprouting 2 years after treatment [66].
Arsenal (an imidazolinone-based herbicide) also controls sassafras [57].
Other herbicides do not control root sprouting [33,62].

Dense stands of sassafras are difficult to convert to pine or more
desirable hardwoods [41].  Mowing is not effective in controlling
sassafras; root sprouts quickly replace or increase aboveground stems
[5].

Sassafras is difficult to transplant because of the sparse, far-ranging
root system [75].

In North Carolina, mechanical removal of all nondesirable stems
(intensive silvicultural cleaning) increased the amount of sassafras
browse available to white-tailed deer. .  Prior to the cleaning,
sassafras was out of reach of the deer; sprouts arising after the
cleaning were within reach [18].

Major diseases of sassafras include leaf blight, leaf spot, Nectria
canker and American mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens) [41].

Insect pests of sassafras are mostly minor; the most damaging insects
are the larvae of wood-boring weevils, gypsy moths, loopers, and
Japanese beetles [41].

Sassafras is extremely sensitive to ozone [43].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Sassafras albidum
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Sassafras is a native, deciduous, aromatic tree or large shrub, with a
flattened, oblong crown [41,83].  On the best sites, height ranges up to
98 feet (30 m) [41].  In the northern parts of its range, sassafras
tends to be shrubby, especially on dry, sandy sites, and reaches a
maximum of 40 feet (12 m) [49].  The bark of older stems is deeply
furrowed, or irregularly broken into broad, flat ridges [38,83].  The
variety of leaf shapes to be found on one individual is a distinctive
trait of the species.  Leaves can be entire, one-lobed, or two-lobed.
The fruit is a drupe [41].  The root system is shallow, with prominent
lateral roots.  Root depth ranges from 6 to 20 inches (15-50 cm).


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
  
   Phanerophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Sexual reproduction:  Sassafras is sexually mature by 10 years of age,
and best seed production occurs between 25 and 50 years of age.  Good
seed crops are produced every 1 to 2 years.  Seeds are dispersed by
birds, water, and small mammals.  Sassafras seeds are usually dormant
until spring, but some germination occurs in the fall immediately
following dispersal [41].  Stratification in sand for 30 days at 41
degrees Fahrenheit (5 deg C) breaks the natural dormancy.  Average
germination rate is around 85 percent [83].  Since sassafras seeds are
relatively large, initial establishment is not highly dependent on
available soil nutrients.  Other factors appear to play a greater role.
Seedling establishment occurred at higher than randomly expected
frequencies on microsites with greater ground cover, less light, or
deeper litter than other microsites [14].  Sassafras seeds were found in
seed banks under red pine (Pinus resinosa), eastern white pine (P.
strobus), and Virginia pine (P. virginiana) stands [6].  Sassafras
seedling reproduction is usually sparse and erratic in wooded areas.  In
these areas, reproduction is usually vegetative [32,41].

Asexual reproduction:  Sassafras forms dense thickets of root sprouts,
and young trees sprout from the stump [41].  After clearcutting in
upland hardwood stands (Indiana), 86.5 percent of sassafras regeneration
was of seedling or seedling sprout origin; the remainder was of stump
sprout origin [36].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
Sassafras occurs on nearly all soil types within its range, but is best
developed on moist, well-drained sandy loams in open woodlands [41].
Optimum soil pH ranges from 6.0 to 7.0, but sassafras also occurs on
acid sands in eastern Texas [41,75].  It is intolerant of poorly drained
soils [32].  Sassafras occurs along fence rows and on dry ridges and
upper slopes, particularly following fire [41].  Sassafras occurs at
elevations ranging from Mississippi River bottomlands up to 4,000 feet
(1,220 m) in the southern Appalachian Mountains, occasionally up to
4,900 feet (1,500 m) [24,41].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Facultative Seral Species

Sassafras is a frequent pioneer in old fields, and is a member of seral
stands in the Southeast [41].  In old-field succession in Tennessee,
sassafras was a dominant member of a 15-year-old stand, and was not
present in a 48-year-old stand [11].  In Virginia, sassafras persists to
mid-successional stages with black locust, Virginia pine, pitch pine,
eastern white pine, scarlet oak, blackjack oak, and post oak [86].  It
also occurs in the canopy of old-growth forests in Illinois and Michigan
[45,71].  In the Michigan stands sassafras decreased in relative density
during a 20-year study [45].  The persistence of sassafras into later
seres and climax stands may be a result of gap capture; in an old-growth
forest in Massachusetts, older sassafras trees appear to be associated
with hurricane and/or windthrow gaps.  There was no evidence of fire
disturbance in this forest [25].  Human activities and disturbance can
foster sassafras establishment in old-growth stands.  The relatively
high abundance of sassafras under Virginia pine stands is associated
with a greater frequency of tree-fall gaps under Virginia pine than
under red pine or eastern white pine [6].  Sassafras seedlings in Table
Mountain pine (Pinus pungens) stands are able to exploit canopy gaps at
the expense of Table Mountain pine [87].

A detailed study of age structure in mixed forests in Virginia reveals
another role for sassafras.  In 45- to 80-year-old mixed hardwoods and
mixed pine stands, sassafras seedlings and saplings occur in large
numbers.  They rarely survive more than 30 years except on moist sites.
On relatively dry sites, sassafras does not survive long enough to
occupy upper canopy positions.  But since sassafras sprouts
prolifically, there is a constant turnover of sassafras stems; older
stems die back and are replaced by new ramets.  Sassafras in the
understory produces fruit under these conditions.  In these stands,
sassafras is apparently functioning as a dominant shrub [72].

In New Jersey, fragmented mixed oak forests were compared with forests
that were continuous.  Sassafras was present in 63 percent of the
fragments, compared to 25 percent of the continuous stands [37].

Sassafras exhibits a positive response to overstory removal; overstory
defoliation by gypsy moths results in an increase in the number of
sassafras stems [1].

An unusual pure stand of sassafras was reported by Lamb [59] in 1923.
This stand appeared to have remained essentially pure and intact for
over 100 years.  The trees were described as fully mature, slow growing,
and the soil was very fertile.  It is possible that the persistence of
this stand, and the competitive success of sassafras in pioneer
communities are related to the presence of terpenoid allelopathic
substances in sassafras leaves .  These substances affect, among other
species, American elm (Ulmus americana) and box elder (Acer negundo).
The susceptibility of these species appears to be related to their habit
of germination immediately following dispersal.  The toxic terpenes are
washed off of summer leaves and are less concentrated in winter and
spring when no fresh leaves are present [31,34].


SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
Depending upon latitude, sassafras flowers from March to May [24], and
fruits ripen from June to September [68,76,77].

FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Sassafras albidum
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Sassafras is moderately resistant to fire damage to aboveground growth.
It is also highly resilient to such damage; sassafras sprouts vigorously
following top-kill, even after repeated fires [54].  In Indiana,
sassafras occurs in black oak (Quercus velutina) stands with a mean fire
interval of 11.1 years [47].  Sassafras establishment on these sites
appears to be related to the frequency and severity of fire.  Sassafras
did not occur on sites which had burned more often (mean fire interval
of 5.2 years).  The stands with longer fire-free intervals burned more
severely than those with shorter intervals.  The more severe disturbance
probably created more favorable conditions for sassafras seedling
establishment [48].

An increase in the frequency of sassafras in New Jersey forests since
European settlement has been attributed, at least in part, to an
increase in fire frequency [73].

The bear oak type, in which sassafras frequently occurs, is a product of
periodic fire and droughty soils [44].  Sassafras also occurs in the
Table Mountain pine-pitch pine (Pinus rigida) type, another fire-adapted
community [42].

Sassafras bark is less resistant to heat than chestnut oak (Quercus
prinus), white oak (Q. alba), and northern red oak (Q. rubra); equally
as resistant as hickory and red maple (Acer rubrum); and more resistant
than witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana), fire cherry (Prunus
pensylvanica), serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.), and bear oak [20].

FIRE REGIMES : 
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this 
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/soboliferous species root sucker
   Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
   Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
   Crown residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)

FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Sassafras albidum
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
Low-severity fires kill seedlings and small saplings.  Moderate- and
high-severity fires injure mature trees, providing entry for pathogens
[41,75].  In oak savanna in Indiana, sassafras showed significantly less
susceptibility to low-severity fire than other species [4].  Sassafras
exhibited 21 percent mortality of stems after prescribed fire in western
Tennessee.  This was the lowest mortality of all hardwoods present.
Season of burning did not affect susceptibility [17].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 
Sassafras occurs on charcoal hearths, which are patches of ground that
were used for charcoal making.  These areas are characterized by very
poor soil structure.  Sassafras on these sites shows poor growth [10].

The effects of annual and 5-year interval prescribed burning over a
27-year period in Tennessee has been reported.  After 6 years, sassafras
density was higher on annually burned plots than on unburned plots.  The
highest sassafras density occurred on the 5-year interval plots [80].
Sassafras gradually decreased with increasing canopy closure on the
5-year interval plots.  By year 27, however, sassafras was eliminated
from the annually burned plots.  Sassafras was also eliminated from
unburned plots; these plots developed closed canopies which are
unfavorable to sassafras [19].

A large number of root sprouts occurred after sapling and small diameter
sassafras trees were top-killed by fire in an Illinois post oak (Quercus
stellata) stand [12].  Sprout production by top-killed sassafras was
stimulated by prescribed fire, and greatly increased its cover in the
shrub layer [13].

In Illinois, the number of small sassafras stems increased after a
single winter prescribed fire from 9 percent frequency to 36 percent
frequency.  This increase was largely due to root sprouting by
top-killed plants.  The number of sassafras seedlings also increased
after the same fire [3].  In Virginia, in Table Mountain pine stands
that experienced a high-severity wildfire (98 percent top-kill),
sassafras increased from 0 to 12.1 in relative importance in 1 year.
Sassafras also increased on plots experiencing low-severity fire, but the
difference in importance value was not as great [42].

In the absence of fire or other disturbances, sassafras frequency
decreases with increasing canopy closure; the number of new sassafras
seedlings also decreases with canopy closure [2,3].

Fire does not always lead to increased sassafras.  Grelen [40] reported
sassafras occurrence on unburned, young slash pine (Pinus elliottii)
plots but not on plots burned annually, biennially, or triennially in
March or May over the course of 12 years.  In Florida, sassafras was
found on unburned, 15-year-old old fields, but not on oldfield plots
that were burned annually in February or March for 15 years [26].

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Prescribed fire for hardwood control in southern pine stands results in
the predominance of American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) and
sassafras.  This predominance is a useful indicator of temporary control
over other hardwoods that usually occupy later seres and are more
serious competitors of pine.  Prescribed fire at 8- to 12-year intervals
can control sprout growth or new plant invasion [74].

In South Carolina, a prescribed January fire in loblolly pine increased
sassafras browse quality and availability.  Prior to the fire, sassafras
stems were out of reach of white-tailed deer [21].  The protein content
of sassafras leaves and twigs was highest in June following prescribed
fire.  By September, the protein content of all browse plants was
similar on burned and unburned sites [23].  After logging and
prescribed burning in an oak-pine stand in South Carolina, white-tailed
deer browsed sassafras heavily [27].

Frequent prescribed fire can improve spring and summer forage quality in
the southern pine forests, where sassafras often occurs.

Prescribed fire on utility rights-of-way does not control sassafras [5].
Vigorous root sprouting maintains sassafras even after repeated fires.
Annual prescribed fire, however, may have a detrimental effect on
sassafras fruit production [50].  On some sites, repeated annual fires
may eventually eliminate sassafras [19,26,40].

A regression equation to calculate the relationship of sassafras bark
thickness to stem diameter has been reported [46].  An equation for
predicting standing sassafras dry weight (and therefore fuel loading)
from sassafras basal diameter has also been reported [70].

REFERENCES
SPECIES: Sassafras albidum
REFERENCES : 

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       Proceedings, 7th central hardwood conference; 1989 March 5-8;
       Carbondale, IL. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-132. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of
       Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station:
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 .  Anderson, Roger C.; Schwegman, John E. 1991. Twenty years of
       vegetational change on a southern Illinois barren. Natural Areas
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 .  Apfelbaum, Steven I.; Haney, Alan W. 1990. Management of degraded oak
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       years of study. In: Hughes, H. Glenn; Bonnicksen, Thomas M., eds.
       Restoration `89: the new management challenge: Proceedings, 1st annual
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 .  Arner, Dale H. 1981. Prescribed burning in utility rights-of-way
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.  Collins, Scott L.; Good, Ralph E. 1987. The seedling regeneration niche:
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.  Crawford, Hewlette S.; Hooper, R. G.; Harlow, R. F. 1976. Woody plants
       selected by beavers in the Appalachian Ridge and Valley Province. Res.
       Pap. NE-346. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
       Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 6 p.  [20005]

.  Davidar, Priya; Morton, Eugene S. 1986. The relationship between fruit
       crop sizes and fruit removal rates by birds. Ecology. 67(1): 262-265.
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.  de Bruyn, Peter; Buckner, Edward. 1981. Prescribed fire on sloping
       terrain in west Tennessee to maintain loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). In:
       Barnett, James P., ed. Proceedings, 1st biennial southern silvicultural
       research conference; 1980 November 6-7; Atlanta, GA. Gen. Tech. Rep.
       SO-34. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
       Southern Forest Experiment Station: 67-69.  [12091]

.  Della-Bianca, Lino; Johnson, Frank M. 1965. Effect of an intensive
       cleaning on deer-browse production in the southern Appalachians. Journal
       of Wildlife Management. 29(4): 729-733.  [16404]

.  DeSelm, Hal R.; Clebsch, Edward E. C.; Rennie, John C. 1991. Effects of
       27 years of prescribed fire on an oak forest and its soils in middle
       Tennessee. In: Coleman, Sandra S.; Neary, Daniel G., compiler.
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