Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
Introductory
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Griffith, Randy Scott. 1991. Fraxinus americana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/fraame/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
FRAAME
SYNONYMS :
Fraxinus biltmoreana Beadle
SCS PLANT CODE :
FRAM2
COMMON NAMES :
white ash
Biltmore ash
Biltmore white ash
cane ash
small-seed white ash
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of white ash is Fraxinus
americana L. [29]. White ash is in the Oleaceae (olive) family [27].
Currently recognized varieties of white ash are [24]:
F. americana var. americana
F. americana var. biltmoreana (Beadle) J. Wright
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
White ash inhabits eastern North America. It occurs from Nova Scotia
west to eastern Minnesota and south to Texas and northern Florida [23].
It is cultivated in Hawaii [34].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
STATES :
AL CT DE FL GA HI IL IN IA KS
KY LA ME MD MA MI MN MS MO NE
NH NJ NC OH OK PA RI SC TN TX
VT VA WV WI NB NS ON PQ
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
14 Great Plains
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K081 Oak savanna
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K084 Cross Timbers
K089 Black Belt
K090 Live oak - sea oats
K091 Cypress savanna
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K097 Southeastern spruce - fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
19 Gray birch - red maple
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
28 Black cherry - maple
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
42 Bur oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
57 Yellow poplar
58 Yellow poplar - eastern hemlock
59 Yellow poplar - white oak - northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
63 Cottonwood
64 Sassafras - persimmon
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
87 Sweet gum - yellow poplar
91 Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Coffman and others [6] list white ash as a dominant and an indicator in
the habitat type classification of upper Michigan and northwestern
Wisconsin.
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
The wood of white ash is economically important due to its strength,
hardness, weight, and shock resistance [17]. It is second only to
hickory (Carya spp.) for use in the production of tool handles. Nearly
all wooden baseball bats are made from white ash [11]. The wood is also
used in furniture, antique vehicle parts, railroad cars and ties, canoe
paddles, snowshoes [23], boats, doors, and cabinets [30].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
White ash is an important source of browse and cover for livestock and
wildlife. The samaras are good forage for the wood duck, northern
bobwhite, purple finch, pine grosbeak, fox squirrel, and mice, and many
other birds and small mammals [27]. White ash is browsed mostly in the
summer by white-tailed deer and cattle [22]. The bark of young trees is
occasionally used as food by beaver, porcupine, and rabbits [27].
White ash's ability to readily form trunk cavities if the top is broken
and its large d.b.h. (24 to 48 inches [61-122 cm]) at maturity make it
highly valuable for primary cavity nesters such as red-headed,
red-bellied, and pileated woodpeckers. Once the primary nest excavators
have opened up the bole of the tree, it is excellent habitat for
secondary nesters such as wood ducks, owls, nuthatches, and gray
squirrels [7].
PALATABILITY :
The palatability of white ash browse for deer and cattle varies from
poor in the fall and winter to fair in the summer [22]. The samaras are
good forage in the fall [27].
The relish and the degree of use shown by livestock and wildlife species
for white ash in several eastern states has been rated as follows
[22,27]:
ME PA WV MI KY
Cattle fair fair fair fair fair
White-tailed deer fair fair fair fair fair
Small mammals good good good good good
Small nongame birds good good good good good
Upland game birds good good good good good
Waterfowl good good good good good
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
White ash browse has a low protein content and low phosphorus:calcium
ratio, giving it a poor nutritional rating in the winter; however, in
the spring and summer the protein content increases to 7.7 percent,
increasing its rating to fair [19].
The nutrient values for white ash browse collected on January 16 were as
follows (data presented is in percent composition) [19].
N-free
Protein Fat Fiber Extract Ash Phosphorus Calcium
3.47 0.95 37.56 40.90 2.12 0.07 0.74
COVER VALUE :
White ash provides hiding and thermal cover for a variety of mammals and
birds. The degree to which white ash provides environmental protection
during one or more seasons for wildlife species in several eastern
states has been rated as follows [26,27,28]:
ME PA WV MI KY
White-tailed deer good good good good good
Small mammals good good good good good
Small nongame birds good good good good good
upland game birds good good good good good
Waterfowl good good good good good
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
White ash has been used in Ohio, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania in the
reclamation of surface coal mines, with 45 percent survival after 30
years. White ash should be planted in mixtures with other hardwoods;
interplanting with European alder (Alnus glutimosa) nearly doubled the
height and d.b.h. of white ash on a site in eastern Kentucky. White ash
seedlings are recommended for planting; direct seeding in Ohio produced
poor results. On acid spoils the lower pH limit for white ash is 4.0
[31].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
The juice from the leaves of white ash can be applied topically to
mosquito bites for relief of swelling and itching [17]. White ash has a
specialized use as a prophylactic measure for snake bite. If one
carries the crushed leaves in his/her pockets the odor has been "proved"
offensive to rattlesnakes [27].
Open-grown white ash is useful as a shade and ornamental tree [17].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
White ash is susceptible to a variety of natural and man-made pathogens.
Ash decline (also called ash dieback or ash yellows) has increased over
the last 40 years and is especially prevalent in New York, Pennsylvania,
and Vermont. Mortality rates are as high as 90 percent in some areas of
New York. Nearly all of the ash decline from 1980 to 1986 occurred in
areas with high levels of atmospheric deposition of sulfur (S0x) and
nitrous (NOx) oxides. Although there is no concrete evidence that acid
deposition is the causal agent, it can not be dismissed [23]. Ash
decline probably results from multiple factors--the disease, ash
yellows, caused by a mycoplasmalike organism; canker fungi (Fusicoccum
spp.); viruses; acid deposition; and drought [16]. Maintaining good
tree vigor is the primary control recommendation. Preventative measures
that seem to abate ash decline include [16]: watering, fertilizing,
applying fungicide, covering wounds with a fungicide-augmented dressing,
and avoiding planting white ash in areas of high acid deposition.
White ash has been found to be sensitive to ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), and acid deposition. Chappelka and others [3] found that total
biomass was reduced 14 percent after exposure to these atmospheric
contaminants. Visible evidence is characterized by initial purple-white
stippling on the adaxial leaf surface which turns into necrotic lesions.
This occurred on 66 percent of the plants.
White ash varies in cold hardiness with the latitude of origin. Trees
grown in the North have a lower lethal temperatures than those from the
South. When revegetating an area, seed and seedlings must be procured
from a source that is climatically and geographically similar [1,13].
Clark and Schroeder [4] have developed equations to calculate the green
volume, green weight, and dry weight of white ash.
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
White ash is a native, deciduous, long-lived tree [30]. Leaves are
compound, 8 to 15 inches (20-38 cm) in length, and usually have seven
oval, entire leaflets [17]. White ash is dioecious. The male flowers
bloom first, before the leaf buds break. The pollen is already airborne
during the 7 to 10 days when the female flowers are receptive [10,32].
The flowers are borne in panicles near branch tips. White ash will
start to flower when it is 3 to 4 inches (8-10 cm) in d.b.h., but
abundant flowering does not occur until the tree is 8 to 10 inches
(20-25 cm) [10].
White ash obtains heights of 60 to 70 feet (18-21 m). The bole is long,
straight and free of branches for most of its length, and the crown is
narrow and pyramidal when grown in a mixed stand. Open-grown specimens
have a short bole with a rounded crown [17].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Undisturbed State: Phanerophyte (megophanerophyte)
Undisturbed State: Chamaephyte
Burned or Clipped State: Chamaephyte
Burned or Clipped State: Cryptophyte (geophyte)
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sexual: White ash samaras remain viable on the forest floor for 3 to 4
years [5]. The samaras require cold stratification; in the laboratory
stratification at 41 to 14 degrees F (5 to -10 degrees C) for 2 to 3
months resulted in a mean germination of 54 percent. Germination is
epigeal and can occur on mineral soil, humus, or leaf litter, but the
substrate must be moist [27].
Vegetative: White ash resprouts from the root crown after logging or
fire. Sprouting ability decreases with age [27].
Silviculture: Young stands (5 to 10 years) respond to the addition of
nitrogen and thinning by increasing the number of stems per acre and
increasing in height growth by 1 to 2 feet (0.3-0.6 m) [15], whereas
older stands (35 to 85 years) do not exhibit increased growth from
fertilization or release [8].
White ash responds well to shelterwood cutting. Advanced regeneration
grows best with 60 percent of the overstory removed [14].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
White ash grows best on deep, well-drained, moist soils with other
hardwoods [17]. In the Northeast white ash occurs on middle mesophytic
slopes, and it is reduced or lacking on dry, cold ridges and
mountaintops. White ash occurs on slightly elevated ridges in the
floodplains of major streams in the Coastal Plain and on slopes along
major streams in the Central States [27].
Soil: White ash has a strong affinity for soils high in nitrogen and
calcium [27].
Climate: Climate varies widely within white ash's range. The
frost-free period ranges from 90 to 270 days. Annual precipitation
ranges from 30 to 60 inches (76-152 cm) per year. Snow depths vary from
0 to more than 100 inches (254 cm) [27].
Elevation: White ash grows from near sea level on the Coastal Plain to
3,450 feet (1,050 m) in the Cumberland Mountains [27].
Associates: White ash's primary associates are eastern white pine
(Pinus strobus), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), white oak (Q. alba),
sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red maple (A. rubrum), yellow birch
(Betula alleghaniensis), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), black
cherry (Prunus serotina), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), and yellow
poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) [27].
Understory associates are downy serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea),
pawpaw (Asimina triloba), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana),
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), and eastern hophornbeam (Ostrya
virginiana) [27].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
White ash is a pioneer species. It is characteristic of early and
intermediate stages of succession. Although mature white ash is
classified as shade intolerant, the seedlings are shade tolerant. A
seedling can survive at less than 3 percent of full sunlight for a few
years. This attribute allows the species to regenerate in gaps [27].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
White ash flower buds break dormancy from April to May, with the
vegetative buds breaking immediately after the flowers [27,30]. The
fruit ripens from August to October [24], and seeds are dispersed from
August to November [2].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
White ash resprouts from the root crown after fire [21].
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
secondary colonizer; off-site seed carried to site after year 2
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Fire kills the aboveground stem and crown of white ash [21].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
Fire wounds can increase a tree's susceptibility to insects and decay by
weakening the plant and providing entry points. Compared with other
hardwoods, white ash is moderately susceptible to fire-damage-induced
decay [33].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
McGee [21] found that after fires of varying intensity in a stand of
5-year-old saplings the number of white ash stems per acre increased as
follows:
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4
Burn Burn No Burn Burn
Moderate Light Control Severe
Saplings 424 215 123 109
Postfire increase +91 +66 +13 +42
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
The Research Project Summaries Effects of surface fires in a mixed red and
eastern white pine stand in Michigan and
Early postfire effects of a prescribed
fire in the southern Appalachians of North Carolina provides information on
prescribed fire and postfire response of plant community species, including white ash,
that was not available when this species review was originally written.
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Fraxinus americana
REFERENCES :
1. Alexander, Nancy L.; Flint, Harrison L.; Hammer, P. Allen. 1984.
Variation in cold-hardiness of Fraxinus americana stem tissue according
to geographic origin. Ecology. 65(4): 1087-1092. [2898]
2. Bjorkbom, J. C. 1979. Seed production and advance regeneration in
Allegheny hardwood forests. Res. Pap. NE-435. Upper Darby, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station. 10 p. [12526]
3. Chappelka, A. H.; Chevone, B. I.; Burk, T. E. 1988. Growth response of
green and white ash seedlings to ozone, sulfur dioxide, and simulated
acid rain. Forest Science. 34(4): 1016-1029. [6165]
4. Clark, Alexander, III; Schroeder, James G. 1986. Weight, volume, and
physical properties of major hardwood species in the southern
Appalachian Mountains. Res. Pap. SE-253. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Experiment Station. 63 p.
[11023]
5. Clark, F. Bryan. 1962. White ash, hackberry, and yellow-poplar seed
remain viable when stored in the forest litter. Indiana Academy of
Science Proceedings. 1962: 112-114. [237]
6. Coffman, Michael S.; Alyanak, Edward; Resovsky, Richard. 1980. Field
guide habitat classification system: For Upper Peninsula of Michigan and
northeast Wisconsin. [Place of publication unknown]: Cooperative
Research on Forest Soils. 112 p. [8997]
7. DeGraaf, Richard M; Shigo, Alex L. 1985. Managing cavity trees for
wildlife in the Northeast. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-101. Broomall, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station. 21 p. [13481]
8. Ellis, Robert C. 1979. Response of crop trees of sugar maple, white ash,
and black cherry to release and fertilization. Canadian Journal of
Forestry. 9(2): 179-188. [12508]
9. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
10. Farmer, Robert E., Jr.; Pitcher, John A. 1981. Pollen handling for
southern hardwoods. In: Agric. Handb. 587. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 77-83. [12654]
11. Gansner, David A.; Widmann, Richard H. 1990. Enough white ash for wooden
bats?. Northern Logger & Timber Processor. 38(10): 32-33. [11774]
12. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
13. Goldsmith, F. B.; Boudreau, P. 1979. Height growth and apical damage of
white ash (Fraxinus americana L.) from various latitudes outplanted in
New Brunswick. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 9: 27-30. [3716]
14. Graney, David L. 1989. Growth of oak, ash, and cherry reproduction
following overstory thinning and understory control in upland hardwood
stands of northern Arkansas. SO-74. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 245- p.
[12548]
15. Graney, David L.; Rogerson, Thomas L. 1985. Growth of oak, ash, and
cherry reproduction following overstory thinning of upland hardwood
stands in the Boston Mountains of Arkansas. In: Dawson, Jeffrey O.;
Majerus, Kimberly A., eds. Proceedings, 5th central hardwood forest
conference; 1985 April 15-17; Urbana-Champaign, IL. Urbana-Champaign,
IL: University of Illinois, Department of Forestry: 4-10. [12646]
16. Hibben, Craig R.; Silverborg, Savel B;. 1978. Severity and causes of ash
dieback. Journal of Arboriculture. 4(12): 274-279. [4332]
17. Hosie, R. C. 1969. Native trees of Canada. 7th ed. Ottawa, ON: Canadian
Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 380 p. [3375]
18. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
19. Lay, Daniel W. 1957. Browse quality and the effects of prescribed
burning in southern pine forests. Journal of Forestry. 55: 342-347.
[7633]
20. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
21. McGee, Charles E. 1980. The effect of fire on species dominance in young
upland hardwood stands. In: Proceedings, mid-south upland hardwood
symposium for the practicing forester and land manager; [Date of
conference unknown]; [Location of conference unknown]. Atlanta, GA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Division of State and Private
Forestry: 97-104. [12706]
22. Michael, Edwin D. 1988. Effects of white-tailed deer on Appalachian
hardwood regeneration. In: Smith, H. Clay; Perkey, Arlyn W.; Kidd,
William E., Jr., eds. Guidelines for regenerating Appalachian hardwood
stands: Workshop proceedings; 1988 May 24-26; Morgantown, WV. SAF Publ.
88-03. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Books: 89-96. [13936]
23. Millers, Imants; Shriner, David S.; Rizzo, David. 1989. History of
hardwood decline in the eastern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-126.
Bromall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 75 p. [10925]
24. Radford, Albert E.; Ahles, Harry E.; Bell, C. Ritchie. 1968. Manual of
the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of
North Carolina Press. 1183 p. [7606]
25. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
26. Runde, Douglas E.; Capen, David E. 1987. Characteristics of northern
hardwood trees used by cavity-nesting birds. Journal of Wildlife
Management. 51(1): 217-223. [13743]
27. Schlesinger, Richard C. 1990. Fraxinus americana L. white ash. In:
Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics
of North America. Vol. 2. Hardwoods. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 333-338. [13965]
28. Twight, Peter A.; Minckler, Leon S. 1972. Ecological forestry for the
Northern hardwood forest. Washington, DC: National Parks and
Conservation Association. 12 p. [3508]
29. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
30. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest.
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 1104 p. [7707]
31. Vogel, Willis G. 1981. A guide for revegetating coal minesoils in the
eastern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-68. Broomall, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station. 190 p. [15575]
32. Wright, Jonathan W. 1953. Notes on flowering and fruiting of
northeastern trees. Station Paper No. 60. Upper Darby, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station. 38 p. [5009]
33. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Region. 1989.
Final environmental impact statement. Vegetation management in the
Coastal Plain/Piedmont. Vol. 1. Management Bulletin R8-MB-23. Atlanta,
GA. 351 p. [10220]
34. St. John, Harold. 1973. List and summary of the flowering plants in the
Hawaiian islands. Hong Kong: Cathay Press Limited. 519 p. [25354]
FEIS Home Page
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/fraame/all.html
