In giant sequoia groves, where California black oak is a common hardwood, understory fires historically reoccurred at 2- to 39-year intervals [45,116,261]. Restoration thinning, prescribed underburning, and wildland fire use in some giant sequoia forests has helped reduce the potential for large, stand-replacement fires [119,261]; however, fire is largely excluded in most mixed-conifer montane forests (review by [261]). With fire exclusion, giant sequoia, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and California black oak are being successionally replaced by incense-cedar and white fir, and tree density is increasing [174,186]. White fir in particular is increasing fuel loads and vertical continuity of fuels in giant sequoia-mixed conifer-hardwood forests. A 1997 study in Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park showed that giant sequoia-mixed forest had greater total downed fine and woody fuel accumulation, as well as greater potential for crown fires due to understory late-successional conifers, compared to adjacent lower-elevation ponderosa pine forest [186].

Ecosystems with mixed-severity fires:
California black oak is a component of some redwood forests. These forests historically experienced mostly patchy, moderate-severity surface fires. Fires would occasionally crown, especially in the southern and eastern edges of the redwood forest type [242]. Fire-return intervals in redwood forests historically ranged from 20 to 500+ years. Veirs [264] found a range of 50 to 500 years near Crescent City, California, while researchers in Redwood State Park [63,241] and Muir Woods [104], California, reported fire-return intervals of 20 to 31 years. Some report intervals of 125 to 500 years where redwood merges with wetter Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) forests (review by [242]). Stuart [241] reported significant differences (P<0.05) between fire-return interval means for presettlement (before 1875, x=31 years), settlement, (1875-1897, x=15 years), and postsettlement (after 1897, x=14 years) in Redwood National Park. Fire sizes were not correlated with fire frequency or settlement period [241].

Mixed-evergreen and dry Douglas-fir forests of southern Oregon and northwestern California, which have a California black oak component, historically experienced mixed-severity fires [4,135,242]. Agee and Edmonds [4] define a mixed-severity fire as one that top-kills 20% to 70% of a stand. Fire-return interval in the Klamath-Siskiyou region ranged widely, from 3 to 116 years, with return intervals in the shorter range for low-elevation forests where California black oak is most prevalent (review by [135]). Mean fire-return intervals were longest, and fires most severe, on north- and east-facing slopes [251,251]. In a review of Agee's previous work, Agee and Edmonds [4] report a decreasing fire-return interval from coastal to inland forests and from north to south, from 90 to 150 years in coastal southwestern Oregon to about 50 years in central-southwestern Oregon. Dry Douglas-fir types in the Siskiyou Mountains had a mean fire-return interval of 20 years prior to European settlement; presettlement fire-return intervals in the Salmon River watershed of northern California ranged from 10 to 15 years. After stand-replacing fire, dry Douglas-fir types of southern Oregon and coastal northern California generally had "several low to moderate severity fires" that thinned the understory of young white firs and Douglas-firs and favored California black oak and other sprouting hardwoods. Agee and Edmonds [4] speculate that presettlement stand structure of mixed-evergreen and dry Douglas-fir forests differed from present conditions, with fewer small trees, snags, and logs due to frequent fires, and suggested that these forests usually reached old-growth stage (about 250 years) before the next stand-replacing fire [4]. At the landscape level, stand-replacing fire was patchy, creating a mix of old-growth forest and younger forest stages [4,135] that favored California black oak. Taylor and Skinner [250] found a historic pattern of mixed-severity and stand-replacement fires, including several severe fires, on the Klamath National Forest in the mid-19th century. For Douglas-fir-white fir-sugar pine stands, fire-return intervals were shorter during the presettlement period (1627-1849, x=14.5 years) than during the fire exclusion period (1905-1992, x=21.8 years). Mean fire-return interval from 1627 to 1992 was 12 years, with a range of 6 to 35.5 years [250].

Current period and fire exclusion: California black oak populations have declined since presettlement times. The decline is due to several factors (see Management Considerations), with fire exclusion among the most important. Major structural changes in woodlands and conifer forests of California and southern Oregon have occurred with fire exclusion, with dense stands of conifers or dense, mixed stands of conifers and shrubs dominating the once open stands where California black oak flourished. Fuel loading in these forests represents an unprecedented buildup of live woody fuels, snags, and downed woody materials [4,203,251]. When these forests burn, the dense understory produces a ladder effect that often results in crown fire [4,251]. This results in high-consumption, mixed-severity or severe fires that are sometimes fatal to California black oak [110].

Fire has been excluded for decades in most of the southern Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada, so fire-dependent communities have missed several fire cycles. Contemporary fire regimes include less frequent, larger fires compared to presettlement times [135,156,261]. In the Siskiyou-Klamath region, for example, 5 fires larger than 20,000 ha occurred between 1987 and 2002. All 5 fires occurred during drought under extreme fire weather conditions. Most closed-canopy, old-growth forests that burned had not experienced fire since at least 1911, when fire records were first started [135]. Van Wagtendonk and Fites-Kaufmann [261] summarize that "Fuel accumulations, brush, small trees, and dense forests produce very different conditions for the inevitable fire that occurs, whether from lightning or human sources. Some headway is being made in wilderness areas and areas where prescribed fire can be applied safely and effectively" [261]. Schmidt and others [216] assessed Douglas-fir forests of the Siskiyou-Klamath region as "moderately or significantly altered" from historic conditions, and at risk of "losing key ecosystems components" without fuel hazard mitigation. In contrast to historically small fires, fuel build-up with fire exclusion has increased fire size in the dry Douglas-fir forests of the Siskiyou and Klamath National Forests to hundreds, sometimes thousands, of acres [4,7,7,24,24,251]. As in the past, these large fires are mostly of mixed severity but are larger in total area burned [7,24,88]. In the 1987 Hayfork Fire on the Hayfork District of the Shasta-Trinity National Forest, for example, crown fire (>50% of crown consumed) burned 5% of the landscape. Twenty-five percent of the landscape was >50% scorched; 32% was 10% to 50% scorched; and 38% was <10% scorched (Weatherspoon and Skinner (n.d.), unpublished document cited in [4]).

In mixed-evergreen forests, fire exclusion may not increase fire severity on all sites or in all stages of succession. In a fire history study of Douglas-fir-tanoak forests with a California black oak component on the Klamath National Forest, Odion and others [177] found a trend toward large fires (>1,500 ha) in recent decades compared to fire sizes before the 1970s, which averaged around 500 ha. However, 1 fire of the Klamath Wildfire Complex in 1987 was a large (100,000 ha), mixed-severity fire of mostly of low severity. Fire mix was 59% low, 29% moderate, and 12% high severity. In this wildfire, fire was generally most severe in shrubland and open forest and lowest in multiaged, closed-canopy forests. For closed-canopy forests, fire severity was lower where fire had been excluded since 1920 compared to sites that had burned since 1920. The authors concluded that fuel loads in the closed-canopy, mixed-evergreen forests had decreased, not built up, in the long absence of fire. Fuel build-up did occur in open forests and on plantations, however [177].

Fuels: Mature California black oaks contribute large annual loads of leaf litter and small woody debris. They also add substantially to large woody debris fuel loads [147]. Average annual litter accumulation under a 75-year-old stand in the Sierra National Forest of California was 0.6 ton/acre, and total litter accumulation was 6.2 tons/acre [117]. California black oak litter decomposes "rapidly", however [220]. One old California black oak (75-100 years) contributed 1,380 pounds of litter/year on the Sierra National Forest. Beneath its crown, total soil organic matter averaged 30,110 pounds/acre [147].

Standing dead fuel load of California black oak is also substantial. An inventory of dead crown fuels in ponderosa pine-California black oak stands in Placer County, California, showed that California black oak had significantly (P<0.001) more dead branches/tree (x=1.33 dead branches/tree) compared to ponderosa pine (x=0.45 dead branch/tree). Large California black oaks infected with Pacific mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum) had the greatest number of dead branches/tree. More California black oaks were infected with Pacific mistletoe (19% infection rate) compared to ponderosa pines infected with western dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium campylopodum) (4%) [76]. California black oak snags are rare [130,228]. An inventory on the Modoc and Lassen National Forests showed a total of 4 California black oak snags in 24 five-ha plots [130]. Fuel load estimates for Pacific madrone-California black oak-tanoak clearcuts on the Challenge Experimental Forest of Yuba County, California, range from 7 to 50 tons of slash/acre [147]. A photo series is available to help quantify fuels in ponderosa pine-California black oak stands and ponderosa pine stands with a component of California black oak [30].

Fire exclusion has resulted in a major increase in understory fuels in most communities with California black oak [261]. Stephens [229] compiled 1899 stand structure data, including basal area, density, and DBH, from 4 mixed-conifer stands in the northern and central Sierra Nevada. Two unlogged stands may provide reference condition information.

Several models are available for estimating standing California black oak fuels. Hann [92] provides a model for predicting crown width of California black oak and other overstory trees in mixed-evergreen forests. Sundahl [246] provides a model for predicting crown fuel load of California black oak. Snell [224] provides tables for predicting crown fuel loads and dry weight mass of California black oak [224]. Paine and Hann [183] give maximum crown-width equations for estimating densities of California black oak and other southwestern Oregon trees.

Sudden oak death disease may affect fuel loads and fire regimes in areas of heavy infection. Increased dead fuel loads, more open canopies, and changes in fuel moisture, understory composition and postfire successional pathways can follow oak mortality [54]. (See the discussion in Fungi and water molds for details of the disease.) Condeso and Meentemeyer [50] speculate that in Sonoma County, California, fire exclusion may have increased the area and density of oak woodlands relative to historic conditions, creating conditions favorable to rapid spread of sudden oak death disease. As of this writing (2007), studies are underway to assess potential impacts of sudden oak death disease on fuel loads and the fire ecology of California black oak and other western oaks [54].

The following table provides fire return intervals for some of the plant communities and ecosystems where California black oak is important. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

FIRE EFFECTS

IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
	California black oak sprouts in postfire year 1 after a prescribed fire in Yosemite National Park. Photo by Michael Yager.

Moderate-severity surface fire top-kills pole-sized trees, but thick, insulating bark usually protects larger trees from fire kill [225,249]. Approximately half of all young California black oaks in a stand are killed by moderate-severity fire [110]; most other young California black oaks are top-killed [61]. For California black oaks large enough to escape top-kill, moderate-severity fire typically causes localized charring and cambium death in the trunk [193,225,249]. Plumb [192] states that "California black oak is the only (oak) species that develops bark sufficiently thick to resist low- to moderate-intensity fire in larger trees" (>6.3 inches (16 cm) DBH). The outer trunk bark is thinner and chars more readily than bark of associated pines, so California black oak trunks are more fire-sensitive to moderate-severity fire than associated ponderosa and sugar pines of similar size [162,220]. California black oak's cambium may incur heat damage even where bark is >0.5 inch (1.3 cm) thick [170,180].

Crown or severe surface fire usually top-kills mature California black oaks [162,180,220,225,249,275]. Crown or severe surface fire that burns into the root crown kills even large trees [41,110,147,155]. Mortality of pole-sized and smaller trees is common after crown fire [61,110]. Complete kill may occur in California black oaks of all size classes when individual trees or clumps of trees are surrounded by or adjoining brush [180]. Severe surface fire often kills shrubby California black oaks [110].

Sprouting: California black oak sprouts from the root crown or bole after top-kill by fire [64,64,147,148,149,162,194,220,231,249]. Trees arising from sprouts often have multiple trunks. Young and others [275] report that single-stemmed California black oaks are rare on the east slope of the Sierra Nevada, and suggest that most east-side California black oak stands resulted from postfire sprouting. Ability to sprout extends across age classes, with seedlings [147] and mature trees showing ability to sprout after fire. Partially burned trees may produce epicormic sprouts on the bole or branches [12,108,149,154,162]. Stephens and Finney [231] found that after prescribed fire in a mixed-conifer stand in Sequoia National Park, 90% of burned California black oak sprouted from the root crown. Neither percent forest floor consumption, percent crown volume scorched, nor crown scorch height were good predictors of California black oak mortality, although those variables successfully predicted conifer mortality. For California black oaks that died, mortality occurred within 1 postfire year [231].

McDonald [148] reports that sprouting starts in the first postfire growing season, with "up to 100 sprouts bursting forth from the most vigorous stumps". Postfire sprouts usually grow rapidly [275]. Within a few weeks following fire, most surviving California black oaks sprout from the root crown and/or undamaged portions of the trunk. This response is independent of the rainy season; new shoots draw upon water and nutrient reserves in the root system and appear soon after spring, summer, or fall fire. Sprouting is "vigorous" in saplings and young trees [159]. Very old trees may fail to sprout or produce only epicormic sprouts [159]. Epicormic sprouts are less "vigorous" than root crown sprouts, with a greater tendency to die back or become infected with wood-decaying fungi while still young [149].

Season of burning affects California black oak sprout density. Individual California black oak grew significantly more sprouts after early fall and early spring prescribed fires compared to late fall and late spring prescribed fires in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests on the Blodgett Forest Research Station, the Challenge Experimental Forest, and the Plumas National Forest. See the Research Project Summary of Kauffman and Martin's [108,109,110,111] study for further information on response of California black oak and other plants to those fires.

California black oak seedling after the Cedar Fire in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. Photo by Linnea Spears.

Seedling establishment: McDonald [148] stated that after fire, acorns provide a secondary reproductive mechanism for California black oak establishment, allowing the species to move into newly created openings and new areas. Seedlings may establish as early as the first postfire growing season [110,148]. Seedlings probably establish from acorns cached by animals (see Seed dispersal), and establishment from crown-stored acorns is also likely. Fire favors seedling establishment in several ways. It prepares a favorable seedbed not only by removing litter, but also by killing damaging molds and insects present in the litter layer. Sapling mortality from root rot is less on recently burned than unburned sites [25,155]. See Discussion and Qualification of Plant Response below for more information.

California black oak seedling numbers increased significantly (P>0.05) following a low-severity prescribed fire in a Jeffrey pine-California black oak forest in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park, California [129,140,141,141]. For further information on this study, see the Research Project Summary of Martin and Lathorop's [129,140,141] study.

Postfire fungal infection: After burning, the trunk cambium develops a "cat-face" scar that becomes a portal for heart- and root-decaying fungi [61]. Infected trees are more susceptible to wind and snow damage, and fungal decay eventually causes infected trees to topple [147]. These wood-decaying fungi reduce the commercial value of California black oaks and shorten tree life spans but are ecologically important. They hasten decay of organic materials in soil. Live California black oaks with heart rot, decayed snags, and large woody California black oak debris provide cover for many cavity-nesting and hibernating wildlife species (see Importance to Livestock and Wildlife).

Response to prescribed fire: The prescribed burning program in Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park shows that dual management objectives of reducing total forest basal area while retaining the hardwood component of the forest, including California black oak, are obtainable [200,208]. Fire-return intervals of 10 years are needed to maintain the Park's goal of sustaining a fuel load of approximately 20 tons/acre in giant sequoia-mixed-conifer forests [200]. A restoration and fuels reduction prescribed burning program was implemented in ponderosa pine forests of Sequoia National Park in the 1960s. A 1996 survey to assess the effectiveness of the fire program found that overall forest density was lower in burned compared to unburned plots. California black oak numbers were "relatively stable" on burned plots, with mortality and postfire ingrowth (sprouts and seedlings) roughly equal. Mortality was higher on burned than unburned plots. However, there was no California black oak ingrowth on unburned sites to replace dead California black oaks, whereas California black oak was reproducing on burned plots [208]:

In 1996, the National Park Service began mechanical hazard fuel reduction and prescribed burning in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests in Yosemite National Park. Target conditions are fuel loads of 10 to 30 tons/acres; 5 to 25 pole-sized conifers/acre; and 90 to 150 overstory conifers/acre. Minimizing mortality of pole-sized and larger California black oak and other oaks is also a management objective. Treatment results are preliminary as of this writing (2007). Initial thinning reduced total fuel loads by 26% and pole-sized conifers by 76%; however, 1-hour and 10-hour flashy fuels were only reduced 17%. Total fuel reduction was below target goal with thinning alone, but follow-up prescribed burning is expected to further reduce fuel loads [184]. Van Wagtendonk [262] discusses the response of California black oak and other vegetation to prescribed fire in Yosemite Valley. See the Research Project Summary of van Wagtendonk's [260] study for further information.

Agee and Edmonds [4] recommend fuelbreaks to reduce fire severity in mixed-evergreen and dry Douglas-fir forests. Placed along ridgelines with otherwise continuous fuels, fuelbreaks provide a zone where fire severity is reduced between stands with heavier fuels and potentially higher fire severities. A high occurrence of California black oak and other sprouting hardwoods in these forest types means that fuelbreaks require maintenance every 10 years or less. They recommend fuelbreak design in Oregon Caves National Monument as a good example of a functional but visually pleasing fuelbreak [4]. Caution is warranted, however, because fuelbreaks provide a corridor for invasive nonnative plants, and monitoring is recommended if fuelbreaks are used [160].

Fuels management studies: A few studies provide results from fuel reduction treatments using thinning and/or prescribed burning in mixed-conifer forests with a California black oak component. Sweeny and Biswell [248] compare fuel load reductions after 4 February and March fires in a ponderosa pine-California black oak-Douglas-fir forest in Lake County, California. Knapp and others [119] compare fuel reduction and fire behavior on early season (June) and late-season (September-October) prescribed fires in mixed-conifer forest in Sequoia National Park. Stephens and Moghaddas [233,234] discuss results of a Blodgett Research Station fuels reduction study using crown thinning and thinning from below followed by mechanical treatment (mastication of understory trees), mechanical treatment followed by prescribed fire, prescribed fire alone, and a no-treatment control. They discuss benefits of retaining some coarse woody debris and creating snags with prescribed fire for wildlife benefit, and describe treatment impacts to forest structure [234].

While useful for the long-term goal of reducing fire severity potential, fuel mastication may increase fire severity on some sites in the short term. On Whiskeytown National Recreation Area in northern California, mastication did not reduce fuels. Instead, mastication converted standing live fuels into dead, small-sized surface fuels. When burned under prescription, mastication units had significantly (P<0.001) longer flame lengths and higher fire temperatures compared to unmasticated burn units. Mortality of pole-sized oaks, including California black oak, and pines was greater in masticated burn units compared to unmasticated burn units. For California black oak, average mortality of overstory trees was 23% and 0% on masticated and unmasticated units, respectively. Mortality of pole-sized California black oaks was 47% and 17%, respectively. The researchers describe techniques for reducing fire severity for managers interested in using mastication and prescribed fire to reduce fuel loads [38].

Prescribed fire in a mixed-conifer-California black oak forest near the Plumas National Forest successfully reduced fuel load. When a wildfire burned through the site previously burned under prescription, fire severity and fire suppression costs were less compared to adjacent land where fire had been excluded [165]. For further information on this study, see the Research Paper by Moghaddas [165].

A fall prescribed fire in the Tharp Creek Watershed of Sequoia National Park produced 50.0% average annual California black oak mortality on a white fir-mixed conifer site monitored for 5 years after fire. Mortality was concentrated in the subcanopy. The fire burned from 23 to 26 October 1990. Relative humidity during the day was 21% to 30% and at night was 30% to 40%. Fuel moisture levels in the litter and duff averaged 28%. For 100-hour and 1,000-hour fuels, moisture levels were 14% and 64%, respectively. At the time of ignition, air temperatures were 50 to 61 °F (10-16 °C) and winds were calm. The fire was a combination of backing and strip headfires with flame lengths of 0.16 to 7.9 feet (0.05-2.4 m). One-hour, 10-hour, and 100-hour fuels were reduced by 96%, 77%, and 60%, respectively. Tree (≥4.6 feet (1.4 m)) mortality was evaluated before and after fire as well as from an unburned reference site [171]. For more information, see the entire Research Paper by Mutch and Parsons [171].

Under prescribed burning conditions, moist leaf litter from large California black oaks may locally reduce combustibility of the forest floor. In Yosemite National Park, soil temperatures were monitored during a restoration prescribed fire in a ponderosa pine community. The fire consumed almost none of the duff layer beneath a large California black oak with a thick layer of loose leaves at its base. Both litter and duff layers were consumed 15 feet (4.6 m) away from the oak's canopy, where ponderosa pine litter prevailed. Fuel loadings were 13 tons/acre under the California black oak and 58 tons/acre away from the oak. During burning, soil temperature 2 inches (5 cm) below the soil surface was 65 ºF (18 ºC) beneath the California black oak, while soil temperature was 162 ºF (72 ºC) 15 feet (5 m) away from the oak's canopy. Forest floor consumption was more uniform where a smaller California black oak was growing on a steep incline and oak litter sloughed downslope. The fire burned to the base of the smaller California black oak, and the forest floor was completely consumed. Mean forest floor reduction was 61 tons/acre [211]. Further data were not available from this preliminary study. The authors noted that "additional work is needed to quantify the effects of prescribed burning on California black oak growing in association with ponderosa pine" [211].

Models: Miller and Urban [161] provide a model for predicting changes in stand structure and succession after prescribed burning or thinning in mixed-conifer or ponderosa pine forests with California black oak.

Wildlife: Prescribed fire can benefit wildlife, and it is sometimes conducted with wildlife habitat improvement as a major fire objective [118]. In Trinity County, California, prescribed burning was conducted in a foothills pine-Oregon white oak-California black oak community to improve Columbian black-tailed deer habitat by increasing available browse species, including California black oak, and opening the canopy. A research note on the fire documents that in postfire year 1, Columbian black-tailed deer used the burned area significantly more (P=0.05) than an adjacent unburned area. Use was based on pellet counts in burned (3,313 pellet groups/ha) and unburned plots (1,966 pellet groups/ha) [112].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

The leaves and berries of Pacific mistletoe, which commonly infects California black oak, are important foods for a variety of birds and small mammals (review by [76]).

Cattle make heavy use of California black oak for food and cover [180,212]. They browse California black oak leaves and stems, and forage for acorns on trees and on the ground [212]. California black oak-mixed oak woodlands are important rangelands [245]. A Blodgett Forest Research Station study of forage use by free-range cattle found consumption of California black oak peaked in June (17.8% of diet), with use extending to August (10.2% of diet) [113]. Cattle may consume much of the California black oak acorn crop in some years. To reduce competition for acorns between mule deer and cattle, Kie and Loft [114] recommend removing cattle from oak rangelands during acorn drop.

Mule deer: California black oak woodlands and forests provide mule deer (Columbian black-tailed deer) cover and habitat [118]. Mule deer browse California black oak [207,212], and acorns are important mule deer forage. Mule deer use of California black oak browse peaks in summer and is lowest in winter [131]. They rely on the acorns after acorn drop: California black oak acorns constitute an average of 50% of the fall and winter diets of Columbian black-tailed deer in high mast years [195]. Fawn survival rates generally increase or decrease with the size of California black oak acorn crops [42]. Mule deer eat the acorns from fall through spring. On the Tehama Deer Range of California, California black oak acorns constituted a mean of 27.8% of the October mule deer diet and 21% of the April diet [147]. California black oak acorns are especially important in early spring just before and during snowmelt [147], when new green forage is still scarce.

Other large mammals: American black bear use California black oak forest types heavily for spring, summer, and fall cover [42]. American black bears and northern raccoons eat California black oak acorns [139]. Ponderosa pine-California black oak forests provide habitat for mountain lions and other large predators [221]. Foothill oak woodlands with a California black oak component provide prime mountain lion hunting grounds [52].

Small mammals: Chipmunks and squirrels make heavy use of acorns (Quercus spp.) [139]. California black oak acorns comprise about 50% of the fall and winter diets of western gray squirrel during high mast years [195]. Plant communities with a substantial California black oak component are good habitat for rodents. California black oak and white fir are the principal tree species associated with northern flying squirrels in the San Bernardino Mountains, where the squirrels are at the southern edge of their range. On the Plumas National Forest, 37% of long-eared chipmunk, 54% of Townsend's chipmunk, 36% of yellow-pine chipmunk, and 50% of golden-mantled ground squirrel habitat use was on early seral conifer burns where the dominant vegetation was California black oak and mixed chaparral species [253]. California black oak provides cover for dusky-footed woodrats, a major prey item for California spotted owls [270].

Birds: Many seed predators consume California black oak acorns, and California black oak is a preferred foraging substrate for many birds [5,166]. Acorn-consuming songbirds include blackbirds, chickadees, crows, goldfinches, larks, Clark's nutcrackers, nuthatches, sapsuckers, and thrashers [139]. California black oak acorns form a majority of the acorn woodpecker's diet in some areas [137,205]. The acorns are important in the fall diet of band-tailed pigeons [173,223], comprising 3.2% of their September diet and 7.7% of their November diet [147]. All of 68 bird species observed in oak woodlands of the Tehachapi Mountains of California used California black oak for part of their foraging activities. The acorn woodpecker, the northern oriole, and the Nashville warbler showed greatest preference for California black oak [29]. In a mixed-conifer forest on the Blodgett Research Station, red-breasted and chestnut-back chickadees foraged on California black oak significantly more than expected (P<0.05) based upon California black oak's frequency [1,39]. A Blodgett Forest Research Station study of bark-foraging birds showed the pileated woodpecker made high use of California black oak branches while hawking [166]. As a guild, insect-gleaning birds preferred (preference value L=0.05) California black oak more than expected based on availability [5]. Morrison and others [39] express concern that managing only for pines in mixed-conifer forests may reduce population densities of chickadees and other gleaning birds that depend on California black oak and other hardwoods for food and cover.

Protected animals: California black oak woodlands are important habitat for several rare and threatened species. California black oak provides diversity and nesting and other cover for California spotted owls [164,228,265] and flammulated owls [146]. A Sierra National Forest-Sequoia Kings Canyon National Park study showed California spotted owls in mixed-oak woodlands nested in California black oaks more often than expected (P<0.05) based on California black oak's relative abundance [175]. In a study of Sierra Nevada fisher populations, fishers in mixed-conifer-California black oak habitat had smaller home ranges than fishers in Sierra lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. murrayana) or Jeffrey pine habitats. The authors suggested that fisher home range requirements were smaller in mixed forest because California black oak and other montane oaks increased habitat quality [270,276]. Stewart and others [237] discuss habitat needs of sensitive-listed southern California herptiles in mixed-conifer forests with a California black oak component.

Arthropods: The bole and limbs of California black oak are habitat for many arthropods species. Some of these arthropods are important to gleaning and other insectivorous birds [39]. Schowalter and Zhang [217] provide a compilation of arthropod family assemblages found on branches of California black oak and associated woody species on the Teakettle Experimental Forest.

Tree cavities filled with rainwater or detritus form unique habitat for aquatic- or detritus-based invertebrate communities. Mosquitoes are among the insects that live in rain-filled California black oak cavities during the larval stage. Some invertebrates are largely or entirely restricted to cavities in California black and other oaks during a portion of their life cycle. Woodard and others [274] detail invertebrate species presence and food chains in cavities of California black and other oaks in Mendocino County, California.

Palatability/nutritional value: California black oak browse is highly palatable to cattle and mule deer, but is less valuable for other ungulates [212]:

California black oak acorns have a high concentration of lipids [149]. They provide little nutrition for herbivore growth and bone-building but are an excellent source of energy due to the high fat content [212]. California black oak leaves may provide the highest food value of all the western oak browse for fattening cattle [136].

California black oak acorns are highly palatable to livestock and mule deer. In a study in the Cuyamaca Mountains of southwestern California, mule deer preferred California black oak acorns over any other forage. Mule deer would search through forest litter for acorns even during spring, when new, palatable sprouts and herbs were readily available [37]. Mean nutritional values of California black oak acorns are given below (review by [59]):

Scrivner and others [218] provide a mineral analysis of California black oak acorns collected on the Hopland Field Station.

Cover value: Wildlife use California black oak heavily for cover. California black oak provides valuable shade for livestock and wildlife during the hot summer months [59]. Cavities in California black oak provide den or nest sites for owls, woodpeckers, tree squirrels, and American black bears [60,271]. Cavity nesters also use oracle oak [271]. For further information, see Importance to Livestock and Wildlife.

Artificial regeneration of California black oak is exacting. Ripe acorns are harvested from trees in late summer or early fall. Acorns collected after midfall are frequently unviable due to fungal infection. Seedlings establish best when acorns are planted in fall [176,249]. Even so, mortality due to acorn predation and herbivory is usually high, and replacement plantings are necessary for good stand establishment. Protecting seedlings with wire caging extending 36 inches (92 cm) aboveground and 18 inches (46 cm) belowground reduces the need for replacement plantings [176]. Artificial regeneration requires a seedbed free of other trees and shrubs [249]. There is an acorn collecting and planting protocol for California black oak [258]. For additional acorn collecting, storage, and planting tips, see [32,33]. There are few reports on the success of outplanting programs. Fritzke [70] discusses techniques used in successful restoration plantings in Yosemite Valley; Roberts and Smith [206] do the same for an experimental California black oak plantation near Idyllwild, California.

California black oak harvest. Photo by M. Kat Anderson @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

Tribes preferred California black oak acorns over those of other oak species for making acorn meal because of California black oak meal's superior taste and pudding-like texture when cooked [27,55]. California black oak meal was often mixed with other oak meals to improve meal flavor and texture [27]. Native Americans used California black oak meal to make soup, bread, and pudding. Moldy California black oak flour was used to treat boils and sores [149]. Some Miwoks still harvest and process California black oak acorns for food [10,11].

The Western Monos used epicormic sprouts of burned California black oaks in basketry [12]. The Yosemite Miwoks used California black oak branches for making household utensils, and the trunks as support columns for roundhouses. The Wintu made black dye from the bark [188].

Commercial use:
Wood products― California black oak is a valuable timber tree. The wood is used for making cabinets, furniture, flooring, high-grade lumber, pallets, and industrial timbers. It is also used as fuelwood [42,138,267]. Forks of open-grown California black oak were used in late 1800s as "naturally assembled" ship keels and ribs [149].

Other products― California black oak is a valuable ornamental. The deep shade and aesthetic appeal of California black oak make it a highly desirable landscaping tree [32,33].

Cork oak (Q. suber) scions were grafted onto California black oak rootstalk in the 1940s to produce cork during World War II [42].

Softwood production: California black oak serves as a nurse tree to conifers. Ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and incense-cedar seedlings often establish under crowns of large California black oak while adjacent ground remains unproductive [42].

Damaging agents, biological―
Many pathogens may infect California black oak. Hecht-Poinar and others [97] provide a general review of agents that infect or infest California black oak and other western oaks, and discuss disease control methods. A discussion of specific pathogens follows.

Fungi and water molds: California black oak is highly susceptible to wood-decaying fungi. Heart rot is mainly caused by two fungal pathogens: Inonotus dryophilus and Laetiporus sulphereus. Another fungus, Armillaria mellea, causes root and butt rot in old or fire-damaged trees [42,149]. Sprouts arising from infected boles are susceptible to heart rot [147]. Summer irrigation encourages growth of root rot fungi [198]. McDonald [147] provides a review of major fungus species that California black oak hosts.

California black oak is also susceptible to several leaf diseases, such as oak leaf fungus (Septonia quercicola) and oak anthracnose (Gnomonia veneta). These agents are usually not serious unless defoliation is repeated [147]. Burns and Honkala [42] and McDonald [147] provide reviews of leaf-damaging fungal pathogens.

California black oak and other oaks in the red oak subgenus are vulnerable to sudden oak death disease [18,56,72]. Both the origin and life cycle of the fungus-like water mold (Phytopthora ramorum) causing this disease are unclear. Based on genetic studies that showed a "limited gene pool" for sudden oak death mold populations in North America compared to European populations, Garbelotto and others [72] speculate that the mold is "an introduced organism, but its actual origin and global genetic structure remain unknown." They provide a tentative explanation of the mold's complex life cycle, which requires an alternate host to complete [72,73].

Sudden oak death disease is fatal to most red oak species. Red oak saplings often die within weeks of infection. Mature trees may take several years to die. Among red oaks, California black oak is very susceptible to sudden oak death mold infection [18,241]. In laboratory seedling and sapling inoculation studies of Texas and California oaks, California black oak had the highest infection rate of 14 red oak and white oak (subgenus Leucobalanus) species [18]. Field monitoring in Marin County, California, showed a progression from total infection rates (all oak species) of 39.0% in 2000 to 62.4% in 2003, and a consummate rise in mortality from 3.8% to 9.4%. There are many alternate plant hosts for the mold, including some species that show symptoms of infection and some that do not. Garbelotto and others [72] and Swain [247] provide lists of known sudden oak death mold hosts including California bay, redwood, tanoak, toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), and Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum) [72,247]. Actual methods of mold spore dissemination were not documented as of 2007. Suspected mechanisms include wind, water, soil, sap-sucking insects and other animal vectors, and transported firewood [18,53,73]. Bark beetles often attack infected trees [158], but they are apparently secondary agents, not sudden oak death vectors [73].

Sudden oak death mortality of California black oak in the Central Coast Ranges is widespread [54,96]. Oak mortality from sudden oak death disease may affect fuel loads [54]. Guides for identifying infected oaks [73,239], collecting pathogen samples for laboratory analysis, and removing infected trees to minimize disease spread [239] are available. The website Monitoring Sudden Oak Death provides county and regional maps of infestations in California. The Pacific Southwest Region of the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, provides annual monitoring updates on their Forest Pest Conditions website. Fungicides for controlling sudden oak death mold are being investigated. Federal and State agencies in Oregon are testing a clearcut-and-burn treatment for infected sites in southwestern Oregon [72]. Control treatment results were not available as of 2007.

Interior live oak is the least sensitive of the Californian oaks in the red oak subgenus [56], so oracle oaks may be genetically less susceptible than California black oak to sudden oak death mold compared to their California black oak parents.

Parasitic plants: This species is frequently infested with Pacific mistletoe [42,147].

Insects: Many insect species feed on California black oak. McDonald [147] reports that insect damage to California black oak is "usually secondary, reducing growth but seldom killing the tree." He provides a review of California black oak insect pests [147].

Damaging agents, physical―
Heavy, wet snow often breaks California black oak branches. Broken limb edges become portals for fungal infection [147].

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