Fire Effects Information System (FEIS)
FEIS Home Page

Index of Species Information

SPECIES:  Pinus coulteri


Introductory

SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : Cope, Amy B. 1993. Pinus coulteri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pincou/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION : PINCOU SYNONYMS : NO-ENTRY SCS PLANT CODE : PICO3 COMMON NAMES : Coulter pine California Coulter pine big-cone pine nut pine pitch pine TAXONOMY : The currently accepted scientific name of Coulter pine is Pinus coulteri D. Don [10,35]. There are no recognized subspecies or varieties. Coulter pine hybridizes with Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) [8,10,31,35]. LIFE FORM : Tree FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : No special status OTHER STATUS : NO-ENTRY


DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : Coulter pine occurs from Contra Costa County, California, south through the Coastal, Transverse, and Peninsular ranges to the Mexican border [10,34,35,39,41,55]. It is cultivated in Hawaii [58]. ECOSYSTEMS : FRES20 Douglas-fir FRES23 Fir - spruce FRES28 Western hardwoods FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub FRES27 Redwood STATES : CA HI BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 3 Southern Pacific Border KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : K006 Redwood forest K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest K029 California mixed evergreen forest K030 California oakwoods K033 Chaparral K034 Montane chaparral SAF COVER TYPES : 211 White fir 232 Redwood 234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone 246 California black oak 247 Jeffrey pine 248 Knobcone pine 249 Canyon live oak 250 Blue oak - gray pine 255 California coast live oak SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : NO-ENTRY HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : Coulter pine occurs in a variety of plant associations, but seldom forms extensive pure stands [18]. Where they do occur, communities dominated by Coulter pine intergrade with chaparral and lower montane coniferous forest [5,24,27,47]. Coulter pine is named as a dominant species in the following published classifications: Terrestrial natural communities of California [22] Vegetation types of the San Bernadino Mountains [25] Vegetation of the San Bernadino Mountains [37] A vegetation classification system applied to southern California [42] Mixed evergreen forest [45] Vascular plant communities of California [47] Montane and subalpine forests of the Transverse and Peninsular ranges [48] An introduction to the plant communities of the Santa Ana and San Jacinto Mountains [52] Associated trees not mentioned in Distribution and Occurrence include sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), bristlecone fir (Abies bracteata), incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), Sargent cypress (Cupressus sargentii), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), California bay (Umbellularia californica), bigcone Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), and birchleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides var. betuloides) [4,7,22,24,47,48,55]. Understory associates include chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), Eastwood manzanita (Arctostaphylos glandulosa), Pringle manzanita (A. pringlei), pointleaf manzanita (A. pugens), deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus), annual hairgrass (Deschampsia danthonioides), rareflower heterocodon (Heterocodon rariflorum), golden violet (Viola douglasii), and annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) [4,19,37,48,52].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : Coulter pine wood is rarely used except as fuelwood and second-grade lumber [26,41,50]. It is light, weak, coarse-grained, and brittle [41]. IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : Females of the southern race of white-headed woodpeckers forage for insects almost exclusively on lower main trunks of Coulter pine, while male white-headed woodpeckers extensively use the cones [33]. The seeds are also a dependable year-round food source for western gray squirrels [7]. Black-tailed deer rarely browse even young trees [23]. PALATABILITY : NO-ENTRY NUTRITIONAL VALUE : NO-ENTRY COVER VALUE : NO-ENTRY VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : NO-ENTRY OTHER USES AND VALUES : Coulter pine is used as an ornamental [23]. The cones are used for decoration and crafts [26]. Coulter pine seeds were eaten by Native Americans [13,15,29,41]. OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Coulter pine distribution has apparently decreased in recent years. This may be due to past policies of fire suppression [55]. See the Fire Effects frame for a discussion on this problem. Annual grasses deplete moisture from the top layer of soil, which decreases survival of young Coulter pine [12,23]. Mature Coulter pine, however, are drought tolerant [23]. Coulter pine cone processing and tree planting methods are discussed in the literature [23,31]. A discussion of damaging agents can also be found in the literature [1,7,21,28].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Coulter pine is a native evergreen conifer that lives up to 100 years of age [23]. It attains a height of 30 to 83 feet (9-25 m) and a d.b.h. of 12 to 31 inches (30-80 cm) [23,29,31,41]. The bark is thick and roughly furrowed at maturity [29,36,38]. The crown is pyramidal and may be dense or open, depending upon the site [23,38,41]. Needles occur in groups of three and are 6 to 12 inches (15-30 cm) long [29,41,50]. The massive, spiny cones are 9 to 15 inches (24-40 cm) long, occurring in whorls of four [29,41]. Young trees first bear cones on the trunk. As trees mature, cones are also borne on strong branches [7]. Although geographically isolated, nine Coulter pine populations were very similar in all of three morphological characteristics studies. Oleoresins (volatile portion) were also similar [55]. RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : Phanerophyte REGENERATION PROCESSES : Coulter pine first bears cones at 10 to 15 years of age [7,31,38]. The interval between good seed crops is 3 to 6 years [31]. Cones may persist up to 5 or 6 years [31,41]. Seed dispersal is limited due to the large size of seed. Seed viability is generally high. Seedling establishment is best on mineral soil in full sun. Early growth is rapid [7,23,31,38]. (See the Fire Ecology frame for a discussion of the role of fire in Coulter pine regeneration.) SITE CHARACTERISTICS : Coulter pine occurs in a mediterranean climate. Winter rains are infrequent, and the summer is dry with occasional summer thunderstorms [37,40,52]. Coulter pine is most frequent on steep south-facing slopes and ridges [4,22,52]. Soils may be poor to fertile, and are typically dry. Coulter pine is an indicator of serpentine soils, but also occurs on a variety of other substrates. Soils range from loamy to gravelly or rocky in texture [22,29,30]. Coulter pine occurs between 500 to 7,000 feet (150-2,120 m) elevation [47,55]. SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : Coulter pine occurs in both initial communities and later seres. Stands are often even-aged, establishing after fire [7,18,39]. Mature Coulter pine is shade intolerant [2], but seedlings can grow in partial shade [7,23]. At higher elevations of the Coast Ranges, Coulter pine sometimes replaces blue oak (Quercus douglasii) [3]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : Coulter pine cones open for pollination in May and June [31,41,50]. Cones ripen in August and September of the second year following pollination [29,31,50]. Mature cones may open at or soon after maturity, slowly over a several-year period, or only after fire, depending upon ecotype. Cones of nonserotinous ecotypes open and disperse seed from October through November [7,31,37].

FIRE ECOLOGY

SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : Coulter pine displays ecotypical variation in degree of cone serotiny. Serotiny is prevalent in Coulter pine/chaparral, Coulter pine-canyon live oak, and Coulter pine/Sargent cypress communities. Cones of Coulter pine in these communities typically do not open until heated by fire. Consequently, the bulk of Coulter pine regeneration in these communities occurs after fire. Coulter pine ecotypes associated with coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), however, typically bear cones that open at maturity or shortly thereafter [7]. Coulter pine seedling development is best in mineral soil in open areas [38]. Such conditions are created by fire. FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes". POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : Tree without adventitious-bud root crown Crown residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)

FIRE EFFECTS

SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : Large Coulter pine are resistant to all but severe surface fires. Younger trees are apparently killed by moderate-severity surface or crown fires [23,54]. No data are available concerning the effect of crown fire on large-diameter Coulter pine. A "hot" surface fire on Mt. Diablo killed nearly all Coulter pine, including large trees. In an area of the mountain where fire was less severe, however, 9 of 52 Coulter pine survived. Of these trees, all of those greater than 16 inches (40 cm) in d.b.h. survived, and only one tree less than 16 inches in d.b.h. survived. Surviving trees had needle scorch only on lower branches [54]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : NO-ENTRY PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : Coulter pine readily establishes from seed on burned sites [52]. Persisting cones on surviving trees, and sometimes on those killed by fire, provide a source of seed [38,52]. Seedling establishment is usually greatest during the first postfire year [7]. The severe Marble Cone Fire in the Santa Lucia Mountains destroyed Coulter pine stands. At postfire year 1, a large number of Coulter pine seeds germinated. Three seasons following the fire, Coulter pine seedling density ranged from 18 to 4,213 per acre (7-1,685/ha). The lower seedling densities probably resulted from interference by annual ryegrass [19]. Vale [54] found that pine seedling density was much greater after the Mt. Diablo fire than before it (newly-germinated pines could not be identified by species). Pine seedling numbers were greatest in areas where fire was less intense. In these areas, relative frequency of pine seedlings was 100 percent; density was 2 seedlings per square meter. In areas where fire was severe, relative frequency was only 56 percent, and density was one seedling per square meter. Vale suggested that the intense heat in the heavily burned areas may have destroyed seeds within the cones of trees, but the less intense heat in the more lightly burned areas may have opened cones without destroying seeds. Pine seedlings were disproportionately located on areas where mineral soil was exposed. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : NO-ENTRY FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Intense fire may be responsible for reducing the distribution of Coulter pine [52,57]. Fire intensity in chaparral, woodland, and forest vegetation is probably greater since initiation of fire suppression [56], and intense fire reduces Coulter pine populations. Frequent, moderate-severity surface fires, however, would probably benefit this species. The differential survival of large trees in less intensely burned areas and enhanced reproduction on exposed mineral soil in such areas both suggest that most Coulter pine evolved under a regime of frequent, light- to moderate-severity surface fires [54]. Managers should keep in mind, however, that Coulter pine in Coulter pine-coast live oak communities may be harmed by fire [7]. Prescribed burning has been used in Coulter pine/manzanita stands to reduce fuel loading [11,51]. Severe fires or fires at too-frequent intervals, however, convert such communities to mixed stands of manzanita and ceanothus [52,55]. Frequent fire selects for Coulter pine over bigcone Douglas-fir in canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis) communities [38]. Under long fire return intervals, Coulter pine invades oak savanna [17,22,45].

REFERENCES

SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
REFERENCES : 1. Amman, Gene D.; Cole, Walter E. 1983. Mountain pine beetle dynamics in lodgepole pine forests. Part II. Population dynamics. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-145. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 59 p. [8315] 2. Baker, Frederick S. 1949. A revised tolerance table. Journal of Forestry. 47: 179-181. [20404] 3. Barbour, Michael G. 1987. Community ecology and distribution of California hardwood forests and woodlands. In: Plumb, Timothy R.; Pillsbury, Norman H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the symposium on multiple-use management of California's hardwood resources; 1986 November 12-14; San Luis Obispo, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-100. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 18-25. [5356] 4. Barbour, Michael G. 1988. Californian upland forests and woodlands. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 131-164. [13880] 5. Bentley, Jay R. 1967. Conversion of chaparral areas to grassland: techniques used in California. Agric. Handb. 328. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 35 p. [195] 6. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434] 7. Borchert, Mark. 1985. Serotiny and cone-habit variation in populations of Pinus coulteri (Pinaceae) in the southern Coast Ranges of California. Madrono. 32(1): 29-48. [5997] 8. Conkle, M. Thompson; Critchfield, William B. 1988. Genetic variation and hybridization of ponderosa pine. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Lotan, James E., compilers. Ponderosa pine: The species and its management: Symposium proceedings; 1987 September 29 - October 1; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 27-43. [9399] 9. Conard, S. G.; Regelbrugge, J. C.; Wills, R. D. 1991. Preliminary effects of ryegrass seeding on postfire establishment of natural vegetation in two California ecosystems. In: Andrews, Patricia L.; Potts, Donald F., eds. Proceedings, 11th annual conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1991 April 16-19; Missoula, MT. SAF Publication 91-04. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 314-321. [16180] 10. Critchfield, William B.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1966. Geographic distribution of the pines of the world. Misc. Publ. 991. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 97 p. [20314] 11. Dougherty, Ron; Riggan, Philip J. 1982. Operational use of prescribed fire in southern California chaparral. In: Conrad, C. Eugene; Oechel, Walter C., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the symposium on dynamics and management of Mediterranean-type ecosystems; 1981 June 22-26; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 502-510. [6055] 12. Dunn, Paul H.; Barro, Susan C.; Wells, Wade G., II; [and others]. 1988. The San Dimas Experimental Forest: 50 years of research. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-104. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 49 p. [8400] 13. Elias, Thomas S.; Dykeman, Peter A. 1982. Field guide to North American edible wild plants. New York: Outdoor Life Books. 286 p. [21104] 14. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905] 15. Fisher, James T.; Mexal, John G.; Phillips, Gregory C. 1988. High value crops from New Mexico pinyon pines. I. Crop improvement through woodland stand management. In: Fisher, James T.; Mexal, John G.; Pieper, Rex D., technical coordinators. Pinyon-juniper woodlands of New Mexico: a biological and economic appraisal. Special Report 73. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University, College of Agriculture and Home Economics: 13-23. [5259] 16. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998] 17. Griffin, James R. 1977. Oak woodland. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Malor, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 383-415. [7217] 18. Griffin, James R. 1978. The Marble-Cone fire ten months later. Fremontia. 6: 8-14. [19081] 19. Griffin, James R. 1982. Pine seedlings, native ground cover, and Lolium multiflorum on the Marble-Cone burn, Santa Lucia Range, California. Madrono. 29(3): 177-188. [4935] 20. Gutierrez, R. J.; Koenig, Walter D. 1978. Characteristics of storage trees used by acorn woodpeckers in two California woodlands. Journal of Forestry. 76(3): 162-164. [20555] 21. Hempel, Kirsten. 1988. Dwarf mistletoe laying siege to pines. Forestry Research West. [Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service]; November: 1-6. [16091] 22. Holland, Robert F. 1986. Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial natural communities of California. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Fish and Game. 156 p. [12756] 23. Horton, Jerome S. 1949. Trees and shrubs for erosion control of southern California mountains. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, California [Pacific Southwest] Forest and Range Experiment Station; California Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry. 72 p. [10689] 24. Horton, J. S. 1951. Vegetation. In: Some aspects of watershed management in southern California vegetation. Misc. Paper 1. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, California [Pacific Southwest] Forest and Range Experiment Station: 10-17. [10685] 25. Horton, Jerome S. 1960. Vegetation types of the San Bernardino Mountains. Tech. Rep. PSW-44. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [10687] 26. Huber, Dean W. 1992. Utilization of hardwoods, fuelwood, and special forest products in California, Arizona, and New Mexico. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Bennett, Duane A.; [and others], technical coordinators. Ecology and management of oak and associated woodlands: perspectives in the sw United States & n Mexico: Proceedings; 1992 April 27-30; Sierra Vista, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-218. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 103-108. [19748] 27. Keeley, Jon E.; Keeley, Sterling C. 1988. Chaparral. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 165-207. [19545] 28. Kimmey, J. W. 1957. Dwarfmistletoes of California and their control. Tech. Pap. No. 19. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, California Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [16464] 29. Krochmal, Arnold; Krochmal, Connie. 1982. Uncultivated nuts of the United States. Agriculture Information Bulletin 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 89 p. [1377] 30. Kruckeberg, Arthur R. 1984. California serpentines: flora, vegetation, geology, soils and management problems. Publications in Botany Volume 48. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 180 p. [12482] 31. Krugman, Stanley L.; Jenkinson, James L. 1974. Pinaceae--pine family. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 598-637. [1380] 32. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384] 33. Ligon, J. David. 1973. Foraging behavior of the white-headed woodpecker in Idaho. Auk. 90(4): 862-869. [8076] 34. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1975. Rare and local conifers in the United States. Conservation Research Rep. No. 19. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 25 p. [15691] 35. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Agric. Handb. 541. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 375 p. [2952] 36. McCune, Bruce. 1988. Ecological diversity in North American pines. American Journal of Botany. 75(3): 353-368. [5651] 37. Minnich, Richard A. 1976. Vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains. In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No. 2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 99-124. [4232] 38. Minnich, Richard A. 1980. Wildfire and the geographic relationships between canyon live oak, Coulter pine, and bigcone Douglas-fir forests. In: Plumb, Timothy R., technical coordinator. Proceedings of the symposium on the ecology, management and utilization of California oaks; 1979 June 26-28; Claremont, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-44. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 55-61. [7015] 39. Minnich, Richard A. 1987. The distribution of forest trees in northern Baja California, Mexico. Madrono. 34(2): 98-127. [6985] 40. Minnich, R.; Howard, L. 1984. Biogeography and prehistory of shrublands. In: DeVries, Johannes J., ed. Shrublands in California: literature review and research needed for management. Contribution No. 191. Davis, CA: University of California, Water Resources Center: 8-24. [4998] 41. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155] 42. Paysen, Timothy E.; Derby, Jeanine A.; Black, Hugh, Jr.; [and others]. 1980. A vegetation classification system applied to southern California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-45. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. [1849] 43. Pryor, L. D. 1940. The effect of fire on exotic conifers: Some notes on the effect of fire on exotic conifers in the Australian capital territory. Australian Forestry. 5: 37-38. [11391] 44. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843] 45. Sawyer, John O.; Thornburgh, Dale A.; Griffin, James R. 1977. Mixed evergreen forest. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 359-381. [7218] 46. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090] 47. Thorne, Robert F. 1976. The vascular plant communities of California. In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No. 2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 1-31. [3289] 48. Thorne, Robert F. 1977. Montane and subalpine forests of the Transverse and Peninsular ranges. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 537-557. [7214] 49. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982. National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names. SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573] 50. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States, their erosion-control and wildlife values. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240] 51. Van Wagner, Ralph. 1968. Survival of coniferous plantations following fires in Los Angeles County. Journal of Forestry. 66(8): 622-625. [6551] 52. Vogl, Richard J. 1976. An introduction to the plant communities of the Santa Ana and San Jacinto Mountains. In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No. 2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 77-98. [4230] 53. Zedler, Paul H. 1986. Closed-cone conifers of the chaparral. Fremontia. 14(3): 14-17. [18648] 54. Vale, Thomas R. 1979. Pinus coulteri and wildfire on Mount Diablo, California. Madrono. 26(3): 135-140. [21620] 55. Zobel, Bruce. 1953. Geographic range and intraspecific variation of Coulter pine. Madrono. 11(8): 285-316. [21797] 56. Parsons, David J. 1976. The role of fire in natural communities: an example from the southern Sierra Nevada, California. Environmental Conservation. 3(2): 91-99. [6478] 57. Wright, Robert D. 1968. Lower elevational limits of montane trees. II. Environment-keyed responses of three conifer species. Botanical Gazette. 129(3): 219-226. [19180] 58. St. John, Harold. 1973. List and summary of the flowering plants in the Hawaiian islands. Hong Kong: Cathay Press Limited. 519 p. [25354]

FEIS Home Page
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pincou/all.html