Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
|
|
 |
| River sheoak fruits. Wikimedia Commons image by Rickpelleg. |
 |
 |
| Beach sheoak male and female flowers. Wikimedia Commons image by B. Navez. |
Gray sheoak fruits. Wikimedia Commons image by Margaret Donald. |
Introductory
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Casuarina spp. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html [].
Revisions:
On 2 March 2018, the common name of Casuarina equisetifolia was changed in FEIS
from: Australian-pine
to: beach sheoak. Images were also added.
ABBREVIATION:
CASSPP
CASCUN
CASEQU
CASGLA
SYNONYMS:
For Casuarina cunninghamiana:
Casuarina litoria L.
NRCS PLANT CODE [16]:
CASUA
CACU8
CAEQ
CAGL11
COMMON NAMES:
For Cunningham casuarina:
river sheoak
river-oak
sheoak
she-oak
For Casuarina equisetifolia:
beach sheoak
Australian-pine
horestail casuarina
For Casuarina glauca:
grey sheoak
ironwood
longleaf casuarina
whistling pine
TAXONOMY:
The scientific name of the sheoak genus is Casuarina (Casuarinaceae) [12,19].
Three species of sheoak are common in the United States. All will be treated
in this report because of their similar status as invader species and
across-the-board efforts to eradicate the genus from the continent.
"Sheoak" refers to the genus. The species covered in this review are:
Casuarina cunninghamiana Miq., river sheoak
Casuarina equisetifolia L., beach sheoak
Casuarina glauca Seiber, gray sheoak [6,19]
These species hybridize with each other [14].
LIFE FORM:
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
NO_ENTRY
OTHER STATUS:
All 3 species of sheoak are list as noxious weeds (prohibited aquatic
plants, Class 1) in Florida [16].
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Sheoaks were introduced to the United States near the turn of the
20th century [14]. They are widely distributed in southern Florida
and are also found in California, Arizona, and Hawaii [12,17].
| Distributions of river, beach, and gray sheoak. Maps courtesy of USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database.
National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC [2018, June 8] [16]. |
 |
 |
ECOSYSTEMS:
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES41 Wet grasslands
STATES:
AZ CA FL HI MEXICO
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS:
3 Southern Pacific Border
7 Lower Basin and Range
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K080 Marl - Everglades
K091 Cypress savanna
K092 Everglades
SAF COVER TYPES:
70 Longleaf pine
75 Shortleaf pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
111 South Florida slash pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES:
None
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:
River sheoak is listed as a component in the following vegetation
types:
Area Classification Authority
Mariana Is, S. Pacific veg. type Falanruw & others 1989 [5]
Palau, S. Pacific veg. type Cole & others 1987 [2]
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE:
Sheoak wood has many uses, including fuelwood, poles, posts,
beams, oxcart tongues, shingles, paneling, fence rails, furniture,
marine pilings, tool handles, and cabinets [3,12]. The wood, however,
is subject to cracking and splitting [14].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:
Sheoak poses a serious threat to some wildlife species. Nest
sites of three endangered species, the American crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus), the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta ssp. caretta), and the
gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), are all threatened by Australian
pine invasion [9,10]. Also, this invader creates sterile foraging and
breeding environments for small mammals [3,14]. It does, however,
provide food for migrating goldfinches which feed on sheoak
seeds [3].
PALATABILITY:
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE:
Tannins in the leaves of sheoak are carcinogenic and could be
fatal to foraging cattle, which sometimes eat the leaves [3].
COVER VALUE:
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
Sheoak was once used in the United States for reclaiming eroded
areas, but many land managers condemn its use because it threatens
indigenous plants and animals [12]. Some African and Asian countries
use it to combat desertification [17].
OTHER USES AND VALUES:
Sheoak has various medicinal uses and is also used for dyes, as
an ornamental, and in windbreaks [12]. C. cunninghamiana (the most
cold-hardy) can be planted in citrus groves to protect fruit trees from
cold [14].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Sheoak is extremely fast growing, crowding out many native
plants and creating sterile environments for both plants and animals
[10]. It forms dense roots, which deplete soil moisture and break water
and sewer lines. It is also susceptible to windthrow during hurricanes
[3]. Cutting often induces sprouting, so it is not an effective control
method. Chemicals, such as 2,4,5-T, 2,4-D, or Garlon 3A, can be used to
eradicate sheoak [10,14].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Sheoaks are medium to tall evergreen trees. They have stout
trunks with rough bark and erect or semispreading main branches and
drooping twigs [12]. Leaves are jointed and scalelike. The fruits
are round and warty with winged seeds. Trees can be dioecious or
monoecious; male flowers are borne at the tips of twigs, while female
flowers form on nonshedding branches [3,14]. Sheoak fixes
nitrogen with the aid of Frankia spp. fungi.
Characteristics of individual species are as follows:
C. cunninghamiana - 80 feet (25 m) in height, 2 feet (6 m) d.b.h.,
dioecious, nonsprouter.
C. equisetifolia - 50 to 100 feet (15-30 m) in height, 1.0 to 1.5 feet
(3-5 m) d.b.h., monoecious, nonsprouter.
C. glauca - 40 to 50 feet (10-15 m) in height, 1.5 feet (5 m) d.b.h.,
dioecious, agressive sprouter, in Florida, usually does not
produce fruit [12].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Sheoaks regenerate by seed as well as vegetatively through
sprouting [3,12,14]. They are fast growing (5 to 10 feet [1.5-3 m] per
year) [14]. Seeds average 300,000 per pound. No pregermination
treatment is necessary. Seeds can remain fertile for a few months to a
year and will germinate in moist and porous soil, sometimes within 4 to
8 days of dispersal [14].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
Because of its nitrogen-fixing capability, sheoak can colonize
nutrient-poor soils [12]. It can grow in sloughs, sawgrass (Cladium
jamaicensis) glades, wet prairies, saltmarshes, pinelands, along rocky
coasts, on sandbars, dunes, and islands, and in water-logged clay or
brackish tidal areas [3,10,14,17,18]. C. equisetifolia is found only in
south Florida because of its cold intolerance. It is resistant to salt
spray but not to prolonged flooding. C. cunninghaminana grows along
freshwater streambanks and is not salt tolerant [3]. It is more
resistant to cold temperatures than C. equisetifolia [12]. C. glauca
grows on steep slopes as well as in intermittently flooded or poorly
drained sites. It is salt tolerant [3].
Some associates of sheoak include eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.),
melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervia), lovegrass (Eragrostis spp.), muhly
grasses (Huhlenbergia spp.), beard grasses (Andropogon spp.), plume
grass (Erianthus giganteus), saltbush (Baccharis halimifolia), wax
myrtle (Myrica cerifera), willow (Salix spp.), sweetbay (Magnolia
virginiana), redbay (Persia borbonia), and coco plum (Chrysobalanus
icaco) [18]. Native associates in the Northern Mariana Islands include
Neisosperma, Barringtonia, Terminalia, Heritiera, Cynometia, and Cordia
[5,6].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Sheoak is listed as a dominant species in some South Pacific
island's vegetation types [2,5,6]. It is a warm weather species, not
native to North America. It can be a primary or secondary colonizer in
disturbed areas of Florida [3,10].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Sheoak can flower and fruit year-round in warm climates [3].
Its peak flowering time is between April and June, and its peak fruiting
time is between September and December. The minimum seed-bearing age is
4 to 5 years, and it produces a good seed crop annually. C.
equisetifolia usually flowers and fruits two times a year: between
February and April, and September and October. It produces fruit in
June and December. The fastest growth occurs in the first 7 years with
maximum growth reached in 20 years. The maximum lifespan of Australian
pine is 40 to 50 years [3].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:
Sheoak less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter can sucker
following fire [3].
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which these
species may occur by entering the species' names in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY:
survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
off-site colonizer;seed carried by wind; postfire years 1 and 2
off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2
secondary colonizer; off-site seed carried to site after year 2
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:
Sheoaks greater than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter are killed by fire [3].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:
A May wildfire killed 60 to 70 percent of sheoak in Florida [10]. A
smoldering controlled burn in Florida killed 90 percent of the sheoaks
on the study plot [14]. A second attempt in the same area killed
all the sheoaks; trunk diameters were between 5 and 8 inches (13-20 cm).
Another tree, with a d.b.h. of 2 feet (0.66 m), was killed after
charcoal was left to smolder at its base [14].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Trees less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter may sprout following fire.
Trees larger than this usually die [3,14].
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Periodic fires coupled with the use of herbicides may be an effective
method of controlling sheoak. However, too frequent, intense
fires that kill overstory native pines may actually encourage Casuarina
species to establish [18]. Morton [14] warns that burning Australian
pine in peat soils may be hazardous. Elfer [3] suggests that fire may
be an effective control method for trees greater than 3 inches (8 cm) in
diameter and in dense stands. Burning could be potentially harmful if
the soil pH is changed such that native species cannot establish [3].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Casuarina spp.
REFERENCES:
1. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
2. Cole, Tomas G.; Whitesell, Craig D.; Falanruw, Marjore C.; MacLean, Colin D.;
[and others]. 1987. Vegetation survey of the Republic of Palau. Res. Bull.
PSW-22. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 13 p. [16147]
3. Elfers, Susan C. 1988. Casuarina equisetifolia. Unpublished report
prepared for The Nature Conservancy on Australian pine. Winter Park, FL:
The Nature Conservancy. 14 p. On file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17376]
4. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
5. Falanruw, Marjorie C.; Cole, Thomas G.; Ambacher, Alan H. 1989.
Vegetation survey of Rota, Tinian, and Saipan, Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands. Resource Bulletin PSW-27. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research
Station. 11 p. [15707]
6. Falanruw, Marjorie C.; Maka, Jean E.; Cole, Thomas G.; Whitesell, Craig
D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana,
Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Resource Bulletin PSW-26. Berkeley, CA:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest
Research Station. 91 p. [15706]
7. Flores, Eugenia M. 1980. Shoot vascular system and phyllotaxis of
Casuarina (Casuarinaceae). American Journal of Botany. 67(2): 131-140.
[17373]
8. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
9. Klukas, Richard W. 1973. Control burn activities in Everglades National
Park. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1972
June 8-9; Lubbock, TX. Number 12. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research
Station: 397-425. [8476]
10. Klukas, Richard W. 1969. The Australian pine problem in Everglades
National Park. Part 1. The problem and some solutions. Internal Report.
South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park. 16 p.On file
with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17375]
11. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
12. Little, Elbert L., Jr.; Skomen, Roger G. 1989. Common forest trees of
Hawaii (native and introduced). Agric. Handb. 679. Washington, DC: U.S
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 321 p. [9433]
13. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
14. Morton, Julia F. 1980. The Australian pine or beefwood (Casuarina
equisetifolia L.), an invasive "weed" tree in Florida. In: Proceedings,
Florida State Horticultural Society. 93: 87-95. [17343]
15. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
16. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. PLANTS Database,
[Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service
(Producer). Available: https://plants.usda.gov/ [34262]
17. Vietmeyer, Noel. 1986. Casuarina: weed or windfall?. American Forests.
Feb: 22-26; 63. [17345]
18. Wade, Dale; Ewel, John; Hofstetter, Ronald. 1980. Fire in South Florida
ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-17. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 125
p. [10362]
19. Wunderlin, Richard P. 1998. Guide to the vascular plants of Florida.
Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. 806 p. [28655]
FEIS Home Page
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html
