Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
|
|
 |
| Alaska blueberry. Image by Harlan B. Herbert, Bugwood.org. |
Introductory
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
Matthews, Robin F. 1992. Vaccinium alaskaense. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/vacala/all.html [].
Revisions:
On 27 August 2018, the scientific name of this species was changed in FEIS
from: Vaccinium alaskensis
to: Vaccinium alaskaense. Images were also added.
ABBREVIATION:
VACALA
SYNONYMS:
Vaccinium alaskensis Howell [4,32,33,55]
Vaccinium oblatum Henry
NRCS PLANT CODE:
VAAL3
COMMON NAMES:
Alaska blueberry
Alaska huckleberry
TAXONOMY:
The scientific name of Alaska blueberry is Vaccinium alaskaense Howell (Ericaceae) [51].
It has been placed within the Euvaccinium section of the taxonomically complex genus
Vaccinium [9,42]. Alaska blueberry is thought to be a polyploid hybrid derived
from oval-leaf blueberry (V. ovalifolium) and red huckleberry (V. parvifolium) [9].
LIFE FORM:
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
No special status
OTHER STATUS:
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Alaska blueberry occurs from the Cascade Range in northern Oregon and
Washington to Prince William Sound, Alaska [4,32,33,55].
 |
 |
| Distribution of Alaska blueberry in Alaska and British Columbia (left) and the conterminous United States (right). Maps courtesy of USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database.
National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC. [2018, August 27] [51]. |
ECOSYSTEMS:
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
STATES:
AK OR WA BC
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS:
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
SAF COVER TYPES:
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:
Alaska blueberry occurs as an understory dominant or codominant in many
habitats within its range. It is most often associated with Pacific
silver fir (Abies amabilis), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla),
mountain hemlock (T. mertensiana), and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis).
The Pacific silver fir/Alaska blueberry community type occurs over large
areas of land from northern Oregon to southern British Columbia. It may
be the most widely represented community type within the Cascade Range
[18,20].
Other commonly associated species include noble fir (Abies procera),
Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), salal (Gaultheria shallon),
rusty menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax),
bunchberry dogwood (Cornus canadensis), Oregon grape (Berberis nervosa),
Pacific rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), devil's club
(Oplopanax horridum), skunk cabbage (Veratrum californicum), and various
gooseberries (Ribes spp.), and blackberries (Rubus spp.). [also see SAF
cover types]
Published classification schemes identifying Alaska blueberry as a major
component of plant associations (pas), community types (cts), or habitat
types (hts) are as follows:
AREA CLASSIFICATION AUTHORITY
AK gen. veg. pas Viereck & Dyrness 1980
OR: Willamette NF forest pas Hemstrom and others 1987
OR: MT Hood & Willamette NF forest pas Hemstrom and others 1982
OR: MT Hood NF forest pas Halverson and others 1986
OR: central Cascades forest pas Dyrness and others 1974
WA:Gifford Pinchot NF Pacific silver fir Brockway and others 1985
zone pas
wWA forest cts del Moral & Fleming 1979
wWA:Cedar River drainage montane forest cts del Moral & Long 1977
WA: Cascades forest cts del Moral & Watson 1978
sWA: Cascades subalpine forest pas Franklin 1966
WA: MT Rainier NP forest pas Franklin and others 1988
WA: Gifford Pinchot NF forest pas Topik and others 1986
Pacific Northwest noble fir ht Franklin 1983
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:
Alaska blueberry fruits are utilized by many species of wildlife
including songbirds, gamebirds, mice, chipmunks, squirrels, raccoons,
and black bears [38,55]. Along the coast of British Columbia, grizzly
bears consume the berries [6].
Twigs and foliage are used as browse by rabbit, snowshoe hare, bear,
goat, elk, and deer [29,38].
Alaska blueberry is very important as winter browse because it is often
found in older stands with shallow snowpack, making it more accessible
to wildlife. Utilization may also increase in early winter in open
areas when lower growing vegetation becomes covered with snow.
PALATABILITY:
Palatability of Vaccinium species as browse is rated at fair to moderate
[12].
Alaska blueberry leaves found in forested areas are more palatable to
deer than those found in clearcuts [28].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE:
Alaska blueberry leaves collected in clearcuts differ in nutrient
content from leaves collected in older stands. In older stands, leaves
have a higher concentration of nitrogen and percentage of digestible
protein. However, leaves from clearcut areas are higher in overall
digestible dry matter. Values for digestible protein (DP) and
digestible dry matter (DDM) are as follows:
DP (% dry weight) DDM (% dry weight)
clearcut 4.8 57.8
forest 11.2 54.7
Van Horne [52] found that phosphorous and potassium concentrations are
also greater in leaves from older stands. These concentrations decrease
sharply from spring to fall. Nutrient concentrations (percent dry
weight) are as follows:
May October
nitrogen 5.79 1.54
phosphorous 0.81 0.14
potassium 1.93 0.73
Vaccinium species in general have sweet berries that contain high
concentrations of mono- and di- saccharides [48]. They are rich in
vitamin C and high in energy content, but low in fat [44].
COVER VALUE:
Alaska blueberry presumably provides cover for a variety of wildlife
species. It often forms a dense understory layer that may serve as
hiding, resting, or nesting sites for many smaller birds and mammals.
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
Much of the natural disturbance in areas that Alaska blueberry occupies
is a result of windthrow. Alaska blueberry readily colonizes sites
where trees have been blown down, the canopy has opened up, and sunlight
has been made available [1,2].
After the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington, Alaska blueberry
plants did not develop adventitious root systems or change the
orientation of their rhizomes in order to recover from burial by tephra
(volcanic ejecta), although many other species did [5].
OTHER USES AND VALUES:
Alaska blueberry fruits are edible and sweet [33,55]. They are used in
jams and jellies, and along with ovalleaf blueberry, constitute the
majority of blueberries picked along coastal Alaska [55]. Alaska
blueberry may produce up to 100 berries per bush, making commercial
collection very time efficient and profitable. The berries have been an
important traditional food source for Native Americans including the
Nuxalk of the Bella Coola region of British Columbia [36]. Blueberry
(Vaccinium spp.) leaves, flowers, and rhizomes have also been used for
medicinal purposes [53].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Alaska blueberry rapidly sprouts from underground stems or establishes
by seed within 3 years of clearcutting [2]. Desired commercial tree
species should be established as soon as possible after timber harvest
because Alaska blueberry may provide competition to tree seedlings.
However, most western blueberry species are severely damaged by
postlogging treatments such as mechanical piling that include harsh
scarification [39].
Alaska blueberry in old spruce-hemlock stands in central Oregon
responded best to heavy or extreme thinning treatments [3].
Net biomass production of Alaska blueberry differs drastically in
different habitats. In hemlock-spruce types, Alaska blueberry produced
98.6 pounds per acre (110.5 kg/ha) of biomass when associated with skunk
cabbage but only 8.66 pounds per acre (9.7 kg/ha) when associated with
bunchberry dogwood [29].
Values for available biomass in four forest types are as follows [2]:
FOREST TYPE STAND AGE BIOMASS AVAILABLE
clearcut 1-25 yrs. 740 lbs/acre (829 kg/ha)
dense, even-aged 26-150 yrs. 15 lbs/acre (16 kg/ha)
mature, even-aged 150-250 yrs. 62 lbs/acre (69 kg/ha)
old-growth >250 yrs. 337 lbs/acre (378 kg/ha)
Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) are not actively cultivated in the
Northwest, but they do produce a profitable and highly demanded crop.
Most of the naturally occurring blueberry fields in Oregon and
Washington are seral and have originated from wildfire. Succession must
be delayed in order to preserve areas where blueberry production is the
most important land use. Burning every 2 to 3 years and chemical or
mechanical weeding may help maintain these areas of high berry
production [40].
Management techniques for cultivation of western Vaccinium species have
not been well documented, although eastern blueberries have been
cultivated successfully for years. Vacciniums are most often propogated
by hardwood cuttings but also can be grown from seed. In general, the
seeds should be planted in a mixture of sand and peat. Seedlings grown
in the greenhouse can be transplanted 6 to 7 weeks after emergence but
should not be transferred to the field until after the first growing
season [11].
Vaccinium spp. can be controlled by applying 2,4-D to foliage, stems,
or basal areas [24].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Alaska blueberry is a spreading to erect shrub reaching 6 feet (2 m) in
height. Leaves are elliptic to obovate. The thin twigs are yellow green
but become gray with age. The urn-shaped, bronzy-pink flowers are borne
singly in leaf axils when the leaves are partially developed. The fruit
is a globose blue-black to purple berry that may or may not have a bloom
[4,32,33,55].
The plant is rhizomatous and generally has shallow roots.
Alaska blueberry is easily confused with ovalleaf blueberry. These two
species can be distinguished by the fact that Alaska blueberry is taller
and has larger leaves than ovalleaf blueberry, and the latter flowers
before or with the leaves. Alaska blueberry is also more shade tolerant
than ovalleaf blueberry [33,40,55].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Alaska blueberry is capable of reproducing by seed or by vegetative
means. Vegetative reproduction is of primary importance to most western
Vaccinium species [39].
Seeds of most Vacciniums are not dormant and require no pretreatment for
germination [11]. A single Alaska blueberry fruit may have up to 100 or
more seeds [49]. The seeds germinate well, but seedling emergence and
survival are strongly correlated with the amount of available light
[29,49]. Seedling emergence in one study was 45 percent in
light-limited young stands, and 73 percent in older stands [49].
Germination on nurse logs is common [47].
Seeds are readily dispersed by the many birds and mammals that eat
Alaska blueberry fruits [3].
Vegetative reproduction: Most Vacciniums regenerate from basal sprouts,
roots, or rhizomes [45]. Sprouting from branches or stems may also
occur after fire or herbivory. Rhizome spreading allows for clonal
expansion, even in the absence of disturbance [49].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
Alaska blueberry occupies a variety of different land forms from valley
bottoms to mountain slopes [16,21,22,30]. It is most often found in
cool, moist sites in montane forests [26]. These sites are generally
classified as moderately productive [8,26,27]. Alaska blueberry is
abundant on sites with minimal soil disturbance [2]. It is found at
elevations ranging from sea level to around 6,000 feet (1,800 m).
Aspect is variable [8,27]. Alaska blueberry can tolerate a wide range
of soil moisture conditions and is found in well-drained to poorly
drained sites [21,22,27,30]. Alaska blueberry has been classified as an
indicator of hypermaritime to maritime climates, and moist to very
moist, nitrogen-poor soils [34].
Alaska blueberry generally occurs in sandy, silt, or clay loams
developed in tephra and colluvial, morainal, or glacial till
[8,16,22,30].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Alaska blueberry is capable of surviving many types of disturbance and
can be important in certain seral communities. It can be an early
colonizer in clearcuts, burned areas, and in areas of windthrow [2,49].
However, as stands become dense and even-aged (stand age 25-150 years),
Alaska blueberry decreases drastically in frequency and abundance. As
the stand continues to mature (stand age 150-250 years) and begins to
self-thin, Alaska blueberry again increases and forms a low, highly
branched layer [2]. Alaska blueberry is most often associated with
these late seral or climax community types. It occurs frequently in
mature-climax western hemlock, Sitka spruce-western hemlock, coastal
true fir-hemlock, and Douglas-fir types [10,31,34,46,47].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Alaska blueberry flowers emerge from April to May after the leaves are
partially developed. Berries ripen from mid-July to mid-August [55].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:
Alaska blueberry sprouts from rhizomes after burning [49]. It may also
sprout from roots and underground stems like other Vacciniums
[25,41,45]. Seedling establishment in most western Vacciniums is not
common but may occur as birds and animals disperse seeds from off-site
sources [39]. Seral blueberry fields in Oregon and Washington are most
likely the result of wildfires [40]. These fields are dwindling in size
as a result of decades of fire suppresion. Fire has apparently been
used in the past by Native Americans of the Northwest to enhance or
maintain Vaccinium fruit production [36,40]. Alaska blueberry primarily
occurs in cool-moist forests that have very long fire intervals (perhaps
400-500 years).
FIRE REGIMES:
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY:
survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
survivor species; on-site surviving rhizomes
off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:
Fire top-kills Alaska blueberry. Moderate- to high-severity fires also
kill underground vegetative portions.
Seeds of most western Vaccinium spp. are susceptible to heat and are
killed by fire [39].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Fire severity significantly influences vegetative response and plants
may not sprout on heavily burned sites where underground regenerative
structures have been damaged or destroyed.
Clearcutting and subsequent burning increased the vigor of Alaska
blueberry in southeast Alaska. Within 4 years the number of aerial
stems sprouting from rhizomes in clearcut and burned areas was twice the
number found in old stands [49].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
In a study at the Sawtooth Huckleberry Field near Mount Adams,
Washington, Vaccinium species sprouted in burned areas by the first
postfire growing season. However, no flowers or berries were produced
by the plants for 3 years following the fire. Significant berry
production was delayed 5 years [41]. On some sites, production may be
reduced for 20 to 30 years or longer [39].
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Flower buds tend to be more numerous on new shoots and periodic removal
of old shoots can increase flower production in many Vacciniums.
Prescribed fire has long been used to rejuvenate commercial lowbush
blueberry (V. angustifolium) fields and to increase fruit production.
Spring burns, conducted when the soil is moist, are generally most
effective in promoting blueberry fruit development [39].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Vaccinium alaskaense
REFERENCES:
1. Alaback, Paul B. 1982. Dynamics of understory biomass in Sitka
spruce-western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Ecology. 63(6):
1932-1948. [7305]
2. Alaback, Paul B. 1984. Plant succession following logging in the Sitka
spruce-western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-173. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. [7849]
3. Alaback, Paul B.; Herman, F. R. 1988. Long-term response of understory
vegetation to stand density in Picea-Tsuga forests. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research. 18: 1522-1530. [6227]
4. Anderson, J. P. 1959. Flora of Alaska and adjacent parts of Canada.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 543 p. [9928]
5. Antos, Joseph A.; Zobel, Donald B. 1985. Plant form, developmental
plasticity and survival following burial by volcanic tephra. Canadian
Journal of Botany. 63: 2083-2090. [12553]
6. Banner, Allen; Pojar, Jim; Trowbridge, Rick; Hamilton, Anthony. 1986.
Grizzly bear habitat in the Kimsquit River Valley, coastal British
Columbia: classification, description, and mapping. In: Contreras, Glen
P.; Evans, Keith E., compilers. Proceedings--grizzly bear habitat
symposium; 1985 April 30 - May 2; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-207.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station: 36-49. [10810]
7. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
8. Brockway, Dale G.; Topik, Christopher; Hemstrom, Miles A.; Emmingham,
William H. 1985. Plant association and management guide for the Pacific
silver fir zone: Gifford Pinchot National Forest. R6-Ecol-130a.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Region. 122 p. [525]
9. Camp, W. H. 1942. A survey of the American species of Vaccinium,
subgenus Euvaccinium. Brittonia. 4: 205-247. [6950]
10. Clement, C. J. E. 1985. Floodplain succession on the west coast of
Vancouver Island. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 99(1): 34-39. [8928]
11. Crossley, John A. 1974. Vaccinium L. Blueberry. In: Schopmeyer, C. S.,
ed. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 840-843.
[7774]
12. Dayton, William A. 1931. Important western browse plants. Misc. Publ.
101. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 214 p. [768]
13. del Moral, Roger; Fleming, Richard S. 1979. Structure of coniferous
forest communities in western Washington: diversity and ecotype
properties. Vegetatio. 41(3): 143-154. [7495]
14. del Moral, Roger; Long, James N. 1977. Classification of montane forest
community types in the Cedar River drainage of western Washington,
U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 7: 217-225. [8778]
15. del Moral, Roger; Watson, Alan F. 1978. Gradient structure of forest
vegetation in the central Washington Cascades. Vegetatio. 38(1): 29-48.
[8800]
16. Dyrness, C. T.; Franklin, J. F.; Moir, W. H. 1974. A preliminary
classification of forest communities in the central portion of the
western Cascades in Oregon. Bulletin No. 4. Seattle, WA: University of
Washington, Ecosystem Analysis Studies, Coniferous Forest Biome. 123 p.
[8480]
17. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
18. Franklin, Jerry Forest. 1966. Vegetation and soils in the subalpine
forests of the southern Washington Cascade Range. Pullman, WA:
Washington State University. 132 p. Thesis. [10392]
19. Franklin, Jerry F. 1983. Ecology of noble fir. In: Oliver, Chadwick
Dearing; Kenady, Reid M., eds. Proceedings of the biology and management
of true fir in the Pacific Northwest symposium; 1981 February 24-26;
Seattle-Tacoma, WA. Contribution No. 45. Seattle, WA: University of
Washington, College of Forest Resources: 59-69. [7783]
20. Franklin, Jerry F. 1988. Pacific Northwest forests. In: Barbour, Michael
G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial
vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 103-130.
[13879]
21. Franklin, Jerry F. 1990. Abies procera Rehd. noble fir. In: Burns,
Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of
North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 80-87. [13371]
22. Franklin, Jerry F.; Moir, William H.; Hemstrom, Miles A.; [and others].
1988. The forest communities of Mount Rainier National Park. Scientific
Monograph Series No 19. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior,
National Park Service. 194 p. [12392]
23. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
24. Gill, John D.; Healy, William M. 1974. Shrubs and vines for Northeastern
wildlife. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-9. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 180
p. [6207]
25. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species:
interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3):
704-720. [6829]
26. Halverson, Nancy M., compiler. 1986. Major indicator shrubs and herbs on
National Forests of western Oregon and southwestern Washington.
R6-TM-229. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Region. 180 p. [3233]
27. Halverson, Nancy M.; Topik, Christopher; Van Vickle, Robert. 1986. Plant
association and management guide for the western hemlock zone: Mt. Hood
National Forest. R6-ECOL-232A. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 111 p. [1068]
28. Hanley, Thomas A.; Cates, Rex G.; Van Horne, Beatrice; McKendrick, Jay
D. 1987. Forest stand-age related differences in apparent nutritional
quality of forage for deer in southeastern Alaska. In: Provenza,
Frederick D.; Flinders, Jerran T.; McArthur, E. Durant, compilers.
Proceedings--symposium on plant-herbivore interactions; 1985 August 7-9;
Snowbird, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-222. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 9-17.
[7395]
29. Hanley, Thomas A.; Robbins, Charles T.; Spalinger, Donald E. 1989.
Forest habitats and the nutritional ecology of Sitka black-tailed deer:
a research synthesis with implications for forest management. Gen. Tech.
Rep. PNW-GTR-230. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. [7509]
30. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Emmingham, W. H.; Halverson, Nancy M.; [and others].
1982. Plant association and management guide for the Pacific silver fir
zone, Mt. Hood and Willamette National Forests. R6-Ecol 100-1982a.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Region. 104 p. [5784]
31. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Logan, Sheila E.; Pavlat, Warren. 1987. Plant
association and management guide: Willamette National Forest. R6-Ecol
257-B-86. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Region. 312 p. [13402]
32. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1964. Vascular plants of the
Pacific Northwest. Part 2: Salicaceae to Saxifragaceae. Seattle, WA:
University of Washington Press. 597 p. [1166]
33. Hulten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403]
34. Klinka, K.; Krajina, V. J.; Ceska, A.; Scagel, A. M. 1989. Indicator
plants of coastal British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British
Columbia Press. 288 p. [10703]
35. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
36. Lepofsky, Dana; Turner, Nancy J.; Kuhnlein, Harriet V. 1985. Determining
the availability of traditional wild plant foods: an example of Nuxalk
foods, Bella Coola, British Columbia. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 16:
223-241. [7002]
37. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
38. Martin, Alexander C.; Zim, Herbert S.; Nelson, Arnold L. 1951. American
wildlife and plants. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 500 p.
[4021]
39. Martin, Patricia A. E. 1979. Productivity and taxonomy of the Vaccinium
globulare, V. membranaceum complex in western Montana. Missoula, MT:
University of Montana. 136 p. Thesis. [9130]
40. Minore, Don. 1972. The wild huckleberries of Oregon and Washington -- a
dwindling resource. PNW-143. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 20 p. [8952]
41. Minore, Don; Smart, Alan W.; Dubrasich, Michael E. 1979. Huckleberry
ecology and management research in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech.
Rep. PNW-93. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 50 p.
[6336]
42. Palser, Barbara F. 1961. Studies of floral morphology in the Ericales.
V. Organography and vascular anatomy in several United States species of
the Vacciniaceae. Botanical Gazette. 123(2): 79-111. [9032]
43. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
44. Reich, Lee. 1988. Backyard blues. Organic Gardening. 35(6): 28-34.
[9179]
45. Rowe, J. S.; Scotter, G. W. 1973. Fire in the boreal forest. Quaternary
Research. 3: 444-464. [72]
46. Ruggiero, Leonard F.; Jones, Lawrence L. C.; Aubry, Keith B. 1991. Plant
and animal habitat associations in Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific
Northwest: an overview. In: Ruggiero, Leonard F.; Aubry, Keith B.;
Carey, Andrew B.; Huff, Mark H., technical coordinators. Wildlife and
vegetation of unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-GTR-285. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 447-462. [17334]
47. Sonnenfeld, Nancy L. 1987. A guide to the vegetative communities at the
Valley of the Giants, Outstanding Natural Area, northwestern Oregon,
USA. Arboricultural Journal. 11: 209-225. [7453]
48. Stiles, Edmund W. 1980. Patterns of fruit presentation and seed
dispersal in bird-disseminated woody plants in the Eastern deciduous
forest. American Naturalist. 116(5): 670-688. [6508]
49. Tappeiner, J. C.; Alaback, P. B. 1989. Early establishment and
vegetative growth of understory species in the western hemlock-Sitka
spruce forests of southeast Alaska. Canadian Journal of Botany. 67(2):
318-326. [8931]
50. Topik, Christopher; Halverson, Nancy M.; Brockway, Dale G. 1986. Plant
association and management guide for the western hemlock zone: Gifford
Pichot National Forest. R6-ECOL-230A. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 132 p. [2351]
51. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018.
PLANTS Database, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service (Producer). Available: https://plants.usda.gov/. [34262]]
52. Van Horne, B.; Hanley, T. A.; Cates, R. G.; McKencrick, J. D.; Horner,
J. D. 1988. Influence of seral stage and season on leaf chemistry of
southeastern Alaska deer forage. Canadian Journal of Forest Research.
18(1): 90-99. [8873]
53. Vander Kloet, S. P. 1988. The genus Vaccinium in North America.
Publication 1828. Ottawa: Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. 201 p.
[11436]
54. Viereck, L. A.; Dyrness, C. T.; Batten, A. R.; Wenzlick, K. J. 1992. The
Alaska vegetation classification. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-286. Portland,
OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Research Station. 278 p. [2431]
55. Viereck, Leslie A.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and
shrubs. Agric. Handb. 410. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 265 p. [6884]
FEIS Home Page
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/vacala/all.html
