Fire Effects Information System (FEIS)

FEIS Home Page

Rosa woodsii

• INTRODUCTORY
• DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
• BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• FIRE ECOLOGY
• FIRE EFFECTS
• MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• REFERENCES

INTRODUCTORY

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION FEIS ABBREVIATION SYNONYMS NRCS PLANT CODE COMMON NAMES TAXONOMY LIFE FORM FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS OTHER STATUS
	Woods' rose on Raspberry Island, AK. Wikimedia Commons image by Sten Porse.

Rosa woodsii Lindl. var. glabrata (Parish) Cole [123]
Rosa woodsii Lindl. var. gratissima (Greene) Cole [123,124], Tehachapi rose
Rosa woodsii Lindl. var. ultramontana (S. Wats.) Jepson [107,110,111,123,124,238], interior rose
Rosa woodsii var. woodsii Lindl. [110,111,114,121,123]

Throughout this review Woods' rose refers to the species as a whole. When the review cites literature that distinguishes varieties, R. w. var. glabrata and R. w. var. woodsii will be referred to by their scientific names, and R. w. var. gratissima (Tehachapi rose) and R. w. var. ultramontana (interior rose) will be referred to by their common names.

LIFE FORM:
Shrub

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
No special status

OTHER STATUS:
Information on state-level protected status of plants in the United States is available at Plants Database.

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• ECOSYSTEMS
• STATES/PROVINCES
• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
• SAF COVER TYPES
• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

United States
CA:
Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains (codominant with black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa)) [102]

CO:
East River Valley (monotypic) [138]

ID:
Riparian areas in the eastern part of the state (monotypic) [96]
Riparian reference areas (codominant with white alder (Alnus rhombifolia), black cottonwood, yellow willow (Salix lutea) and monotypic communities) [117]
Teton Creek Mitigation Site (codominant with Douglas hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii)) [117]
Hixon Sharptail (codominant with Douglas hawthorn) [117]
Lower Little Wood River (codominant with narrowleaf willow (S. exigua)) [117]

MT:
Temporarily flooded cold-deciduous shrubland (monotypic) [193]
Lower Yellowstone River (codominant with western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis)) [29]
Riparian/wetlands sites in the northwestern part of the state (monotypic) [30]
Low to mid-elevation riparian sites throughout the state (monotypic) [99]
Pryor Mountains (monotypic) [152]

ND:
Little Missouri River (codominant with green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and western snowberry) [88].

NM:
Pecos and Rio Grande basins (codominant with blue spruce (Picea pungens) and thinleaf alder (A. incana ssp. tenuifolia)) [167]

NV:
Mill Creek (codominant with arroyo willow (Salix lasiolepis) and basin big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata)) [28]
Toiyabe, Santa Rosa, East Humboldt, White Pine, and Schell Creek ranges (codominant with quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)) [148,149]
Ruby and Spring mountains and Toiyabe, Monitor, White Pine, and Grant ranges (codominant with black cottonwood, narrowleaf cottonwood (P. angustifolia), and lanceleaf cottonwood (Populus × acuminata)) [148,149]
Jarbridge, Mahogany, and Toiyabe ranges (codominant with Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)) [148]
Monitor and Toiyabe ranges (codominant with blueberry willow (S. myrtillifolia)) [148]
Independence and Toiyabe ranges (codominant with narrowleaf willow) [148]
East Humboldt, Independence, Jarbridge, and Toiyabe ranges (codominant with willows (Salix ssp.)) [148,149]
White Pine, Grant-Canyon, Schell Creek, Carson, Toiyabe ranges and Jarbridge and Spring mountains (monotypic) [149]
Schell Creek Range (codominant with chokecherry (Prunus virginiana)) [149]
Sweetwater, Santa Rosa, Toiyabe, Monitor, Mahogany, East Humboldt, Jarbridge, Wildhorse, Schell Creek, and White Pine ranges (codominant with yellow willow) [149]
Monitor, Toiyabe, Santa Rosa, and White Pine ranges and Bald and Independence mountains (codominant with narrowleaf willow) [149]
Quinn-Canyon, Grant, and Santa Rosa ranges and Spring Mountains (codominant with arroyo willow) [149]
Great Basin National Park (codominant with Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma), chokecherry, and water birch (Betula occidentalis)) [202]

OR:
Trout Creek Mountains (monotypic communities and communities codominant with Pacific willow (S. lucida ssp. lasiandra), gray alder (Alnus incana), yellow willow, quaking aspen, and Kentucky bluegrass) [78]
Catherine Creek (codominant with common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), Kentucky bluegrass, interior ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum), and black cottonwood) [126]

SD:
Black Hills (codominant with oak-sumac (Quercus-Rhus ssp.) associations) [104]
Black Hills and Bear Lodge mountains (codominant with quaking aspen, Kentucky bluegrass, and white clover (Trifolium repens)) [197]

UT:
Abajo and LaSal mountains (codominant with narrowleaf cottonwood) [175]

WY:
Great Plains montane or boreal cold-deciduous forest (codominant with quaking aspen) [193]
Bighorn River riparian zone (codominant with skunkbush sumac (R. trilobata) and western snowberry) [2]
Black Hills (codominant with quaking aspen) [50]

Canada
SK:
Temporarily flooded cold-deciduous shrubland (monotypic) [193]
Matador Research Station (codominant with western snowberry, prickly rose (Rosa acicularis), northern bedstraw (Galium boreale), and green needlegrass (Nassella viridula)) [140]

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT

Woods' rose is a native perennial shrub, usually forming dense thickets [203,211,223,236]. Woods' rose grows to a height of 3 to 10 feet (1-3 m) [4,92,136,223,238] and attains maximum height within 10 years from initiation of growth [95]. Rosa woodsii var. woodsii grows to a height no greater than 3 feet (1 m) [110,111]. The stems of Woods' rose are covered with curved thorns from 3 to 6 mm long [110,211,223]. Woods' rose leaves are alternate [223,238], 0.5 to 5 inches (1.5-13 cm) long, and 0.1 to 1 inch (0.4-2.5 cm) wide [223,238]. Each leaf is composed of 5 to 9 leaflets up to 2 inches (5 cm) long and 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide [110,136,223]. The leaflets of Tehachapi rose and R. w. var. woodsii are generally smaller, from 0.4 to 0.8 inch (1-2 cm) long [110,111,124].

The inflorescence of Woods' rose is few-flowered and may be solitary [90,211,238]. Woods' rose flowers are 5-petaled, 0.5 to 0.75 inch (1.5-2 cm) long [90,223,238]. Woods' rose hips occur in clusters [90,238] and are 0.25 to 0.5 inch (0.75-1.5 cm) long and wide [110,223]. The fruits of Woods' rose are achenes contained within the rose hip [92,110,211]. Each rose hip contains from 15 to 35 achenes [92,110,211] which are approximately 3 to 4 mm long [211,223] and weigh roughly 9.0 mg [161].

While the root crown of Woods' rose is relatively shallow [95,100,199], root points reach deep into the soil [147,171]. The rooting depth of Woods' rose was studied in the Lubrecht Experimental Forest, 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Missoula, Montana. Two sites were chosen, both of which were dominated by interior ponderosa pine and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca). Site 1 was also codominated by western larch (Larix occidentalis). Both sites 1 and 2 are modal Gray Wooded soils characterized by a leached A2 horizon overlying a strongly alluviated B2t horizon. At site 1, Woods' rose roots reached a depth of at least 4 feet (1.2 m), but did not reach to 5 feet (1.5 m). At site 2, Woods' rose roots reached a depth of 6 feet (1.8 m) [171]. On the western foothills of the Teton Mountains near Victor, Idaho, Woods' rose shrubs root to a depth of 3 feet (1 m) or greater [147].

In western U.S. arid and semiarid riparian areas, interior rose is intermediately tolerant of seasonal flooding. Intermediately tolerant is defined as "species which are able to survive flooding for periods between 1 to 3 months during the growing season. The root systems of these plants may produce few new roots or will be dormant during the flooded period" [232].

RAUNKIAER [184] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte

REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Woods' rose regenerates via seeds and vegetatively from the root crown [95,116,227,236], by root suckering [78], and layering [236].

Pollination: Woods' rose is pollinated by insects [161].

Breeding system: Woods' rose has perfect flowers and a monoecious breeding system [161,203,211].

Seed production: Woods' roses first flower and produce seeds when they are 2 to 5 years old. Good seed crops generally occur every 1 to 2 years [95,199,236]. In North Dakota, 1 Woods' rose stem produced approximately 200 seeds [205].

Seed dispersal: The seeds of Woods' rose are primarily dispersed by birds and mammals [30,95].

In a controlled study, Woods' rose seeds fed to cattle had the highest rate of recovery (86%) and viability (77.4%) of 7 species following digestion and secretion. The other species were common snowberry, purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea), western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), green needlegrass, upright prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera), and bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) [69].

Woods' rose seeds are dispersed by water on the North Fork of the Cache La Poudre River and South Boulder Creek, Colorado. Seed catchments were put in place from June to August on the North Fork and from May to August on South Boulder Creek, both of which are dammed. On the North Fork, upstream and downstream from the dam, 2.0% and 1.0%, respectively, of all seeds collected were from the family Rosaceae (including Woods' rose). On South Boulder Creek, upstream and downstream from the dam, 1.0% and 1.0%, respectively, of all seeds collected were from the family Rosaceae [160].

Seed banking: Woods' rose forms a seed bank [95] and seeds remain viable for 16 or more years in the field [122,198].

Germination: Woods' rose seeds require scarification and/or stratification for germination to occur [95]. A germination study by a commercial nursery in Canada found that an alternating warm/cold stratification method produced the best germination rate. Woods' rose seeds were warm stratified at 68 °F (20 °C) for 60 days, followed by 90 days at 37 °F (3 °C) which produced a 45% germination rate [145]. In another study an identical warm/cold stratification method was used and produced a germination rate of 49% [161]. Shaw [198] claims that Woods' rose seeds cold, dry stratified at 32 ºF to 50 ºF (0-10 ºC) for 30 to 365 days can produce a germination rate of 70%.

Seedling establishment/growth: Woods' rose seedlings and plants 2 to 3 years old grow "slowly" [81].

Asexual regeneration: Woods' rose sprouts from the root crown [95,116,227,236], produces root suckers [78], and regenerates by layering [236]. Langenheim [138] suggests that Woods' rose spreads by rhizomes, but this is not supported by more recent literature.

SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
Woods' rose prefers south-facing slopes [174]. It occurs on dry slopes [114], streambanks [25,47,78,92,99,124,219,238], open woods [124], hillsides [124], washes [124], waterways [90], irrigation canals [238], marshlands [238], lakeshores [238], hillsides [238], rocky prairie ravines [92,181], open woodlands [92], roadsides [92], and canyons [181].

Within the broader site characteristics, Woods' rose infrataxa have individual preferences. Rosa woodsii var. woodsii occurs in plains and prairie ecotypes [110]. Interior rose occurs primarily in the cordilleran ecotype [110]. Rosa woodsii var. glabrata is found in moist places, generally about springs [168,169]. Tehachapi rose prefers dry slopes [168,169].

Air Pollution: Woods' rose is very sensitive to sulfur dioxide (SO₂) air pollution. Woods' rose plants located in a narrowleaf cottonwood community in New Mexico and Utah at an elevation of 6,500 to 7,500 feet (2,000-2,300 m) were subjected to 6 different levels of SO₂ (see below). The higher rate of injury at 6.0 ppm compared to 10.0 ppm may be due to the number of replications. The following table describes the average percent injury to Woods' rose plants by SO₂ pollution. The value in parentheses is the number of replications [108].

Climate: Woods' rose prefers moderate climates; however, it will grow in alpine environments [95]. In the Great Basin and Great Plains of the United States, Woods' rose grows where climatic conditions are characterized by cold winters with moderate snowfall and late spring rainfall. Summers are typically hot and dry, coupled with a high evaporation rate [46,74,104]. Woods' rose is seldom found in areas where there is less than 10 inches (260 mm) of annual rainfall [81,95,218].

Detailed climatic data for Alton and Emery coal fields in southwestern Utah, for the 6-year period when Woods' rose was used to revegetate the sites, can be found in the publication by Ferguson and Frischknecht [82].

Elevation: Woods' rose occurs naturally at elevations ranging from 3,500 to 11,640 feet (1,060-3,550 m) [95,218,236]. Elevation ranges for Woods' rose are presented below:

In an elevational gradient study of northern Arizona, interior rose only occurred on south-facing slopes at 7,000 feet (2,130 m), but occurred on both south- and north-facing slopes at 8,000 feet (2,440 m) [83].

Riparian areas: Woods' rose is a facultative upland species, meaning that it usually occurs in nonwetland habitats, but may be found in wetlands (1-33% probability) [100].

Soils: Woods' rose is adapted to a wide range of soil types [81,95,100,218,236]. It generally grows best on moderately fertile, well-drained clay loam, sandy loam, or sandy soil [2,74,95,185,236]. Soil orders in which Woods' rose is normally found included Inceptisols, Entisols, and/or Mollisols [95]. Woods' rose is tolerant of moderately acid to weakly basic soils. Woods' rose prefer soils with a pH of 5.6 to 7.0 [95,236].

A detailed soil analysis of 2 small watersheds in Utah's Wasatch Mountains, where Woods' rose grows, can be found in the publication by Johnston and Doty [120].

Woods' rose is a subdominant species (Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) is the dominant species) on south-facing slopes of Cold Canyon in the Wasatch Mountains, Utah. In late spring, the soil moisture level at 3 depths (6, 12, and 18 inches (15, 30, and 45 cm)) was 21.75%, 18.5%, and 14.25%, respectively [174].

SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Woods' rose tolerates disturbed sites such as burns [96,99,100,180], is moderately shade tolerant [95,116,199,236], and occurs in several stages of succession. Woods' rose grows more vigorously and produces more fruit when growing in full sunlight [95,199].

Woods' rose is found across the successional spectrum. It is found on secondary successional sites (while the time since disturbance is not clearly stated in the research methods, the authors do note that 4 of the study plots had not been disturbed for as many as 80 years or more) in the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir/ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus) association in northern Idaho [45]. Woods' rose occurs in the oak-sumac chaparral "subclimax" association in the Black Hills of South Dakota [104] and occurs in mid- to late seral stands of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) along the Missouri River in southeastern South Dakota [241].

Fire: Along the Bighorn River in Wyoming, Woods' rose is codominant with western snowberry and skunkbush sumac on areas disturbed by fire [2]. Primarily following fire, but also after such disturbances as logging, mining, grazing, and recreation, Woods' rose occurs in the 2nd stage of succession in conifer forests of the White Mountains, New Mexico. The general succession on this study area following a disturbance is divided into 3 stages: (1) forbs, (2) shrubs and trees, and (3) coniferous forests. The shrub and tree stage generally begins 2 to 3 years postfire and can last up to 80 years with little variability in species composition [97]. Eight years following an "intense" wildfire in a Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) forest, Woods' rose was a common species on the burn site [188]. Tehachapi rose occurs as an early successional species on burn sites on Hunter Mountain, Death Valley National Monument, California. Following a series of summer lightning fires in 1984, Tehachapi rose re-emerged on burn sites during postfire year 1 [142].

General disturbances: Woods' rose adaptation to disturbed sites is excellent [178]. It is an aggressive pioneer species in abandoned fields, road borrow pits, fence rows, field edges, gullies, and land cuts and fills [233].Along the Bighorn River in Wyoming, Woods' rose is codominant with western snowberry and skunkbush sumac on areas disturbed by fire, beavers, browsing, flooding, and bank erosion [2]. Woods' rose is an early seral species on earthen mounds created by burrowing pocket gophers in the Jackson Hole region of Wyoming [141]. The Woods' rose community type in eastern Idaho riparian areas represents a grazing disclimax [96].

Sometime from 1920 to 1925 a massive subalpine earthflow occurred in the East River Valley near Gothic, Colorado. At this site, dense Woods' rose thickets occur on both stable and unstable shale as well as on well-developed soil in fescue (Festuca ssp.) and sagebrush (Artemisia ssp.) communities. At several locations on the earthflow, Woods' rose has pioneered on bare areas devoid of vegetation [138].

Logging: Forest canopy removal seldom causes an increase or decrease in Woods' rose cover [95].

Clearcutting has little effect on Woods' rose cover. In the San Juan National Forest, southwestern Colorado, Woods' rose is an important quaking aspen understory species. In 1974, stands of quaking aspen were clearcut; at the time, cover of Woods' rose was 0.9%. Five years following clearcutting, Woods' rose cover stood at 0.8%, while cover on adjacent uncut areas remained stable at 0.9% [59].

In the Medicine Bow Mountains of southeastern Wyoming, Woods' rose shrub cover was greater in 30 to 50 year old clearcuts than in mature Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir (Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa) forests. On Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine clearcuts, Woods' rose cover was 0.67% and 0.24% in the mature forest. On Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir clearcuts, Woods' rose cover was 0.24% and 0.01% in the mature forest [196].

At the Little Missouri National Grasslands, North Dakota, approximately 40% of green ash and American elm (Ulmus americana) trees were cut down on twelve 0.2 acre (.08 ha) plots to open up the canopy. On sites where trees were cut, Woods' rose average plant height increased 48% [32].

Riparian areas: In riparian areas of central and eastern Montana, the Woods' rose community type commonly represents a disturbance-induced seral stage of the green ash/chokecherry habitat type or the boxelder (Acer negundo) /chokecherry habitat type [100].

In the eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains, California, Rush Creek was diverted around 1915, which caused substantial dewatering in the natural stream bed. Dewatering of Rush Creek facilitated dominance of Woods' rose in this area. Woods' rose dominance was correlated (r = 0.42) with abundance of woody litter, indicating that Woods' rose dominance occurred in areas where obligate woody riparian species had died [208].

Woods' rose occurs in early to late seral riparian communities of the lower Yellowstone River, Montana [29]. On sites in the lower Yellowstone River Basin, where peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides) and narrowleaf willow have begun to thin after roughly 100 years of dominance, Woods' rose and western snowberry gain dominance [31].

Woods' rose dominated sites in riparian/wetland areas of northwestern Montana likely represent a disturbance-induced seral stage of the interior ponderosa pine/red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea) and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir/ red-osier dogwood habitat types [30].

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Woods' rose growth starts in early spring [211]. The flowering periods for Woods' rose in several states and the Great Plains are presented below:

In California, interior rose flowers from June to August and Tehachapi rose flowers from April to August [169].

The flowering sequence for Woods' rose was recorded over a 13-year period near Swift Current, Saskatchewan. For the study period, the mean 1st flowering date was 14 June. The earliest and latest date of 1st flowering was 24 May and 30 June, respectively. The mean flowering period in days was 62 and the latest that Woods' rose remained in flower was 9 September [35].

In the northern Great Plains near Woodsworth, North Dakota, Woods' rose earliest and latest 1st bloom were 29 May and 25 June, respectively, during the 1979 to 1984 growing seasons. Woods' rose completed 95% of flowering on average by 5 July and stayed in flower for 21 days [40].

FIRE ECOLOGY

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

Fire regimes: Many diverse communities provide Woods' rose habitat. In interior ponderosa pine and oak savanna communities, fire may occur as often as every 2 years [176,230]. Conversely, Woods' rose occurs in curlleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) communities where the fire return interval can be as great as 1,000 years [15,194]. A brief fire description of locales where Woods' rose is most common is provided below.

Coniferous forests: Woods' rose is an important species in Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forests. In the Jackson Hole region of Wyoming, the fire return interval in Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forests is 50 to 100 years. Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forests adjacent to sagebrush steppe have a shorter fire return interval, generally from 20 to 25 years [34].

Woods' rose is a common understory species in interior ponderosa pine forests in Zion National Park, Utah. European settlement activities from 1862 until 1926 caused a dramatic decrease in fire frequency. This pattern has continued from 1926 until present under the National Park Service fire suppression program. The fire scar records suggests that the fire frequency prior to 1862 was from 4 to 7 years. From 1931 to 1984, 315 fires have been reported within the park and along the park boundary. Of those 315 fires, 235 were lightning fires [164].

Deciduous forests: Fire was an important ecological process in the quaking aspen parklands of central Alberta prior to European settlement, with most fires ignited by lightning and Native Americans. In the early 1900s, brush cover in the parklands ranged from approximately 5% to 10%. Presently, without periodic fires, brush cover ranges from 10% in drier regions to 60% to 100% in more mesic areas [19].

Woods' rose may occur as a dominant species in riparian cottonwood (Populus ssp.) woodlands in southern Alberta river valleys. Dendrochronological analyses of riparian cottonwoods in the Oldman River area show up to 4 fire scars per century. Fires are most likely to occur in "decrepit" woodlands during dry periods [89].

Pinyon-Juniper (Pinus-Juniperus spp.) woodlands: Gruell [94] used fire scar evidence to produce a fire history for the Walker River Watershed Project, California. The watershed is an area of 392,750 acres (158,900 ha) encompassing the Sweetwater Mountains, Pine Grove Hills, and the west slope of the Bodie Hills. Sampling of 6 Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) and 3 Colorado pinyon (P. edulis) trees produced a 208-year fire chronology in the Little Frying Pan Study Area for the years 1687 to 1895. A total of 51 fires scars representing at least 27 fire years were found on the 9 trees, suggesting a fire return interval of 8 years. Fires during this period were started by both lightning and Native Americans. In the 1850s, European settlers migrated into the areas, forced Native Americans off their land, and effectively ended human-caused fires. Expansive grazing by cattle and domestic sheep promoted by Europeans caused a substantial reduction in fine fuels which also inhibited fire. Fire is largely suppressed in the Walker River Watershed Project presently. Since 1960, 266 wildfires have been suppressed in the area [94].

Shrub-steppe: Woods' rose is found around the Columbia Plateau of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The fire return interval for this habitat is approximately 25 years [57].

The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where Woods' rose is important. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

FIRE EFFECTS

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

While Woods' rose is described as a fire-tolerant shrub [96,99,100,180], the effect of fire on Woods' rose growth is mixed. During postfire year 1, research has shown Woods' rose cover to increase [91], decrease [154,228], and remain unchanged [5]. Beyond postfire year 1, further research found Woods' rose cover and/or production to increase [5,23,24,91,154], decrease [6,7,23,24], and remain unchanged [23] depending upon fire intensity severity. In one study, Woods' rose density increased during postfire years 1 and 2, but plant height decreased over the same time period [91].

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
The frequency of Woods' rose increased nearly 3-fold 2 years following a spring burn on the western snowberry-dominated University of Alberta Ranch. Woods' rose frequency remained constant at 4.0% on unburned plots during the study period, 1970 to 1972. On burned plots, Woods' rose frequency was also 4.0% during postfire months 3 and 15, but increased to 11.0% at postfire month 27. The cover of Woods' rose was not reported in the study [5].

The cover (3-year average) of Woods' rose significantly (p<0.01) decreased following a high-intensity fire in an Idaho interior ponderosa pine forest, but remained relatively unchanged on low-intensity burn sites. Fireline intensity ranged from 30 to 3,034 Kcal/m-s (781 Kcal/m-s average) on high-intensity sites and from 25 to 194 Kcal/m-s (127 Kcal/m-s average) on low-intensity sites. The average cover of Woods' rose during a 3-year postfire period was 0.8% on unburned sites, 0.7% on low-intensity burn sites, and 0.2% on high intensity burn sites [6,7].  

Prescription burning in a quaking aspen community in western Wyoming reduced production (kg/ha) of Woods' rose on lightly and heavily burned sites, but produced no change on moderately burned sites at postfire year 3. The area, Bridger-Teton National Forest, was burned on 29 August 1974, and the following conditions existed at the time of burning: 77 °F (25 °C) air temperature, winds gusting at 8 to 20 mph (13-32 kph), 18% relative humidity, and fuel moisture in the quaking aspen groves ranged from 10% to 45%. A site was considered lightly burned if approximately 0% to 20% of the litter and duff was consumed, moderately burned if approximately 21% to 80% was consumed, and heavily burned if approximately 81% to 100% was consumed. Prior to burning and on moderately burned sites in postfire year 3, Woods' rose production was 53kg/ha. On lightly and heavily burned sites in postfire year 3, production was 30 kg/ha and 16 kg/ha, respectively [23].

The researchers returned to the site during postfire year 12 and found that Woods' rose production was greater on moderately burned sites than before burning, but that production on lightly and heavily burned sites was still less than the prefire level of 53 kg/ha. Production of Woods' rose on lightly, moderately, and heavily burned sites in postfire year 12 were 34 kg/ha, 85 kg/ha, and 51 kg/ha, respectively [24].

Following two April 1992 fires in cottonwood woodlands along the Oldman River in southern Alberta, Woods' rose, Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), chokecherry, and western snowberry had created a sparse understory by postfire month 5. By postfire year 5, a dense understory was present dominated by either 6.5 to 10 foot (2-3 m) tall chokecherry and Saskatoon serviceberry stands, or 3 foot (1 m) tall Woods' rose and western snowberry bushes [89].

Prescription burning in an interior ponderosa pine forest reduced Woods' rose production in postfire year 1. The burn was conducted on 2 consecutive days in October, 1982, on the Fort Valley Experimental Forest near Flagstaff, Arizona. The average daily temperature during the 2 days of burning was 64 ºF (18 ºC) and 57 ºF (14 ºC), respectively. The total heat yield of the fire on sites occupied by Woods' rose was 42,082 kJ/m². In November, 1983, Woods' rose production had decreased from a preburn level of 53.47 kg/ha to 13.50 kg/ha [228].

A spring fire in an quaking aspen-conifer forests covering 40 acres (16 ha) in the West Boulder River Valley, Montana, caused a substantial increase in Woods' rose density during postfire years 1 and 2, but a decrease in plant height. At the time of the fire relative humidity ranged from 10% to 30%, fuel moisture ranged from 5% to 10%, winds were at 15 miles/hr (24 km/hr), and the temperature ranged from 65 ºF to 85 ºF (18-29 ºC). Using a point-center-quarter measurement system, Woods' rose density/acre prior to the fire was 2,863. Woods' rose density/acre increased in postfire years 1 and 2 to 15,094 and 31,282, respectively. Prior to the fire, the average height of Woods' rose plants was 28.0 inches (71 cm). Following the fire, average Woods' rose height was 11 inches (28 cm) at the end of postfire growing season 1 and 16 inches (41 cm) at the end of postfire growing season 2 [91].

In the Wasatch Mountain Range, Utah, 4 Gambel oak communities were studied 1, 2, 9, and 18 years following fires. Woods' rose is common in all 4 communities and was reduced by burning in postfire year 1, but increased in postfire years 2, 9, and 18. The following table describes Woods' rose cover (%) on burned and unburned sites [154]:

The Research Project Summary Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests of western Montana provides information on prescribed fire and postfire response of plant community species including Woods' rose.

Burning season: Research indicates that the response of Woods' rose to spring and summer fires is similar [132].

Forest Fuel: Woods' rose is an important species in Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forests. In Montana Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forests, the available fuel averages 13 tons/acre [33].

Invasive species: If fire is chosen as a management tool for Woods' rose, managers should be cognizant of potential negative effects on associated or surrounding vegetation. For instance, Woods' rose grows in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming [137]. In the past several decades the area has been infested by the drought-deciduous salt cedar (Tamarix ramosissima) which is fire tolerant and may expand after disturbances such as fire and severely reduce native plant coverage [144].

Wildlife: At the Woodsworth Study Area, North Dakota, Johnson [118] found that burning Woods' rose and other shrub species may displace birds such as eastern kingbird, willow flycatcher, yellow warbler, common yellowthroat, clay-colored sparrow, and brown-headed cowbird, all of which thrive in woody vegetation that has been long protected from fire.

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Small mammals/birds: Woods' rose has good food value for upland game birds, nongame birds, and small mammals, but poor food value for waterfowl [30,131]. Woods' rose hips are an important source of winter food for sharp-tailed grouse in South Dakota [77]. In northeastern Montana, Woods' rose is a food source for sharp-tailed grouse. Of 85 adult and juvenile birds collected in the study, Woods' rose hips occurred in 15% of their stomachs in 1976 and in 55% of their stomachs in 1979. Next to juniper (Juniperus ssp.) cones, Woods' rose was the most important food source in 1979 [163]. In another study, sharp-tailed grouse consumed on average 63.3 grams (dry weight ) of Woods' rose hips during the winter in southeastern Montana [182].

Woods' rose is an important source of food for prairie porcupines in northern Montana. In a study conducted in 1980 and 1981, 14.1% of available Woods' rose shrubs were browsed, making it the 5th most important food for porcupine, exceeded by only American elm, eastern cottonwood, skunkbush sumac, and chokecherry [105].

Large mammals: Woods' rose is a forage species for grizzly bears throughout their range [240]. Woods' rose hips are a food source for grizzly bear in the Bitterroot Mountains of Idaho and Montana and the Bob Marshall Wilderness of Montana [60,146].

Ungulates: Woods' rose is a seasonally important browse species for big game animals throughout the western U.S. [30,100,131].

Mule deer browse Woods' rose throughout the growing season (particularly on north-facing slopes) in the eastern foothills of the Cottonwood Mountains in Malheur County, Oregon [49]. Mule deer feed on R. w. var. woodsii in late spring and early summer on the Kaibab Plateau north of the Grand Canyon, Arizona [115]. Woods' rose is an intermediately preferred shrub for mule deer during the winter in the Rattlesnake Creek drainage near Missoula, Montana. Woods' rose hips are an extremely important source of winter food for mule deer in Cache County, Utah. Welch and Andrus [237] found that from 6 December 1974 to 3 January 1975, mule deer consumed 92% of available Woods' rose hips on the study site. Mule deer in the Sheeprock Mountains of Utah exhibit little preference for Woods' rose when browsing on sites grazed and ungrazed by cattle. On 2 study sites, mule deer diet composition (% dry weight ± s _x) of Woods' rose was 5±1 and 5±2 on grazed sites and 2±1 and 7±2 on ungrazed sites during late summer, 1983 [16].

In South Dakota's Black Hills, R. w. var. woodsii is a valuable browse species for white-tailed deer in summer. From October to June, R. w. var. woodsii constitutes 3.6% to 4.6% of white-tailed deer diets. In summer, however, white-tailed deer diets are made up of 24.8% of R. w. var. woodsii [109]. In the Black Hills of northeastern Wyoming, Woods' rose is described as an important summer and winter forage species for white-tailed deer [173].

Woods' rose is a source of food for moose from December to June on the north slope of the Gallatin Mountain Range in southwestern Montana [204].

Palatability/nutritional value: Livestock and big game find the leaves of Woods' rose palatable from spring to fall [218]. The palatability of R. w. var. woodsii in the Black Hills of South Dakota is "medium" from October to March and "high" from April to September [109]. Woods' rose palatability for cattle and domestic sheep is fair, but poor for horses [30,100].

The palatability of Woods' rose in several western states has been rated as follows [65]:

Woods' rose leaves and stems provide sufficient protein for domestic sheep and cattle throughout the growing season [75]. Crude protein content of Woods' rose leaves ranges from 5.7% in fall to 16.4% in spring, and stems range from 5.4% protein in winter to 12.0% in spring [61,236].

Woods' rose hips are an excellent source of digestible energy given their low lignin and crude fiber content accompanied by a high content of nitrogen-free extract [237]. Woods' rose hips, in a "weathered" stage, contain 26.6% cellulose and 1.7% digestible protein in the rough fescue (Festuca altaica) association of southwestern Alberta [27]. Woods' rose hips collected in South Dakota in the fall had a gross energy value (Kcal/g) of 4.928 and a crude protein value of 5.0% [77]. Woods' rose hips are also one of the best natural sources of vitamin C [124,218].

The structural content, crude protein and in vitro digestibility of Woods' rose stems in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, during November to March 1976-1977 and 1977-1978 are expressed as a range in the table below [112]:

The nutritive and chemical composition of Woods' rose in a "weathered" phase in a plains rough fescue (F. hallii) association of the Porcupine Hills of southwestern Alberta are presented below. In a "weathered" state, Woods' rose does not meet the protein (7.5%-11.7%) required for cattle, but does meet the phosphorus (0.15%-0.28%) requirement [119].

Woods' rose year-roundleaf and stem crude protein (%) in the Black Hills of South Dakota is presented in the table below [64]:

Woods' rose year-round leaf and stem gross energy content (cal./g) in the Black Hills of South Dakota is presented in the table below [64]:

Cover value: Woods' rose provides good cover for birds, small mammals, fish, and ungulates.

Fish: Thick communities of gray alder-Woods' rose provide valuable cover for fish in riparian areas of the Trout Creek Mountains, Oregon [78].

Nongame birds: Woods' rose is an essential cover species for a variety of nongame birds in the Great Plains and the western U.S. Woods' rose provides cover for numerous nesting bird and small mammal species along Wet Creek, Idaho [48]. Many birds use Woods' rose as cover in green ash-black cottonwood woodlands of the Little Missouri National Grasslands, North Dakota [113]. Interior rose provides limited cover for the Mexican spotted owl in interior ponderosa pine-Gambel oak forests near Flagstaff, Arizona [85]. In Montana and Washington riparian sites, Woods' rose provides fair cover for small nongame birds [100,131].

At Mono Lake, California, McCreedy and Heath [153] found 9 willow flycatcher nesting sites, all constructed in Woods' rose shrubs. Monotypic stands of Woods' rose approximately 30 to 300 feet (10-80 m) wide dominated the site. Five of 6 mated male territories ranging from 0.94 to 3.24 acres (0.38-1.31 ha) identified in the study occurred in monotypic Woods' rose stands.

Small mammals: Woods' rose is an essential cover species for a variety of small mammals in the Great Plains and the western U.S. Woods' rose is a cover species for deer mice in the Mount Haggin Wildlife Management Area in southwestern Montana [70]. Pocket gophers in the Jackson Hole region of Wyoming use Woods' rose thickets for protection from predators [141]. In a riparian habitat at Deer Creek, Nevada, Woods' rose provides cover for shrew, chipmunk, squirrel, gopher, mouse, woodrat, and vole species [156,157]. Woods' rose provides cover for black-tailed prairie dogs in Billings County, North Dakota [207]. Woods' rose-western snowberry communities provide cover for coyotes in winter and summer in the hardwood draws of southeastern Montana [213,214]. Woods' rose is a cover species for river otters in the Flathead River Valley of northwestern Montana [231]. In Montana and Washington riparian sites, Woods' rose provides fair cover for small mammals [100,131].

Ungulates: Woods' rose is listed as a poor hiding/escaping, thermal, and fawning cover species for white-tailed deer in the Black Hills of northeastern Wyoming [173]. It is listed as a fair cover species for elk and a good cover species for mule and white-tailed deer in Montana and Washington riparian/wetland sites [30,100,131].

Upland game birds: Woods' rose is an essential cover species for a variety of upland game birds in the Great Plains and the western U.S. Woods' rose is a good source of cover for ruffed grouse along the Snake River riparian corridor within Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming [36]. Woods' rose provides nesting cover for sharp-tailed grouse in the Brown's Bench area of south-central Idaho and near Weiser, Idaho [129,191]. Merriam's wild turkeys utilize Woods' rose thickets for cover in the central Black Hills of Pennington County, South Dakota [190]. Woods' rose-western snowberry communities provide habitat for ring-necked pheasants year round and sharp-tailed grouse during fall in the hardwood draws of southeastern Montana [213,214]. In Montana and Washington riparian sites, Woods' rose provides fair cover for upland game birds [100,131].

Waterfowl: Mallard nesting sites in Woods' rose stands are common throughout the Missouri Coteau and Drift Plain biogeographic provinces of central North Dakota [54]. In the prairie potholes region of central North Dakota, Woods' rose provides important nesting cover for mallards, gadwalls, and blue-winged teal in pastures [143].

In Montana and Washington riparian sites, Woods' rose provides good cover for waterfowl [100,131].

The cover value of Woods' rose in several western states has been rated as follows [65]:

Studies where Woods' rose was used successfully in revegetation trials:

Interior rose transplants successfully revegetated untreated land contaminated with acid spoils from the Leviathan mine in Alpine County, California. Two plots were utilized, one where interior rose plants were planted on unseeded bare ground and another where they were planted with a grass seed mixture of orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), smooth brome (Bromus inermis), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium), and Kentucky bluegrass. At the time of transplanting, the interior rose plants were 1 year old. Three years following transplanting, interior rose had a survival rate of 100% on both seeded and unseeded plots. The cover of interior rose on seeded and unseeded plots was 81.5% and 67.5%, respectively [79].

At the Alton coal field in southwestern Utah, Woods' rose transplants had a 100% survival rate 6 years after planting. In year 6, the mean height and crown diameter of Woods' rose on the site were 30 inches (76 cm) and 34 inches (86 cm), respectively [82].

Spring planting of 1-year old Woods' rose bare-rooted plants on road cuts in northwestern Montana was more successful than fall planting. Four years following planting, spring-planted Woods' rose had a survival rate of 93% compared to 62% for fall-planted Woods' rose [116]. Woods' rose transplants successfully revegetated road cuts in the Coram Experimental Forest, Montana. Woods' rose cuttings were transplanted on 6 sites and at the end of the 1st growing season the success rate was from 92% to 99% [86].

An analysis of desirable conditions (temperature, soil factors, and precipitation) for the successful use of Woods' rose for rehabilitating roadsides in the northern Rocky Mountains is presented in the report by Meier and Weaver [158].

Studies where Woods' rose was unsuccessful or partially successful in revegetation trials:

Woods' rose seed revegetation trials were relatively unsuccessful on an abandoned oil drill pad site in the Uintah Mountains of Utah. The site was sown with an average of 21.5 seeds/m² during the last week of September, 1984. One half of the site was fertilized with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and the other half was unfertilized. One and 3 years following seeding, Woods' rose standing biomass (g/m² ± s dry weight) on unfertilized sites was 0.03±0.005 and 0.32±0.026, respectively, and on fertilized sites 0.03±0.005 and 0.06±0.0, respectively [44].

Woods' rose bareroot stocks were used with partial success to rehabilitate a depleted sagebrush steppe riparian system in the Cottonwood Mountains of Malheur County, Oregon. The bareroot stocks of Woods' rose were planted in March 1987 on north-facing and south-facing slopes and on the flats. Survival rate and shrub height was greatest for Woods' rose on the flats, where after 4 years 27% of the plants survived and averaged 19 inches (48 cm) tall. Survival rate on north- and south-facing slopes was 13% in year 4 and average height was 7 inches (18 cm) and 18 inches (45 cm) tall, respectively. Woods' rose development on north-facing slopes was particularly inhibited by moderate to heavy browsing by deer throughout the growing season [49].

There is 1 Woods' rose cultivar ('common') available [220].

OTHER USES:
Native Americans used roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and hips for food and therapeutic materials. Woods' rose and Tehachapi rose hips are one of the best natural sources of vitamin C, and can be dried for use in flavoring teas, jellies, fruitcakes, and puddings [100,124,218].

The Mescalero Apache and Navajo ate the hips of R. w. var. woodsii [43]. The Ramah Navajo used Woods' rose shrubs for food, basketry, and in ceremonies [222].The Kawaisu Native Americans of south-central California had several uses for interior rose. The rose hips were a food source and the stems were used as rims for twined basketry [247].

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Grazing: Woods' rose is strongly grazing tolerant, but can be dwarfed and thinned by intense browsing [96]. Research on the effects of Woods' rose browsing are mixed.

In the following studies, browsing caused a decrease in Woods' rose:

Short-term, intense livestock browsing (5 AUM/ha) caused significant (p<0.05) decrease in Woods' rose/prickly rose density and height postfire years 5 and 6 in the quaking aspen parklands of Alberta. Following a 1979 fire, cattle were placed on burn sites in an attempt to control woody species. In postfire years 5 and 6, Woods' rose/prickly rose density (stems/m²) decreased to 7.8, down from 24.7 in postfire year 2. The height of Woods' rose/prickly rose during postfire years 5 and 6 was 12.6 inches (32 cm) on early-browsed (soon after emergence of suckers regenerating forest species) sites, 11 inches (28 cm) on late-browsed (just prior to leaf fall) sites, and 26 inches (67 cm) on ungrazed sites [18].

Summer livestock grazing in Cache County, Utah, caused a substantial decrease in Woods' rose hips per plant. On sites grazed, Woods' rose plants averaged 2.5 hips/plant, but averaged 15 hips/plant on ungrazed sites [237].

In the following, the exclusion of cattle browsing facilitated an increase in Woods' rose:

The exclusion of livestock browsing of Woods' rose caused a significant (researchers consider p<0.10 significant in this study) decrease in cover in Red Butte Canyon and a small increase in cover in Emigration Canyon in the mountain brush zone of Utah. At Red Butte Canyon, cattle browsing was excluded in 1905 and exclusion occurred in 1957 at Emigration Canyon. From 1935 to 1983, Woods' rose cover decreased from 2.9% to 0.2% in Red Butte Canyon and increased from 0.8% to 1.3% in Emigration Canyon [17].

At Pole Canyon in the Wasatch Mountain Range of Utah, the exclusion of cattle led to an increase in Woods' rose. In 1949, the last year that cattle grazing was allowed, Woods' rose frequency was 2.3%. By 1958, Woods' rose frequency more than doubled to 5.3% [172].

The following citations indicate that cattle browsing may facilitate an increase in Woods' rose:

In Montana riparian areas dominated by eastern cottonwood/red-osier dogwood, Woods' rose will increase under "moderate" grazing, corresponding with a decrease in red-osier dogwood, chokecherry, western snowberry, Saskatoon serviceberry, and various currant (Ribes ssp.) Prolonged "moderate" to "heavy" grazing may lead to the dominance of Woods' rose [98].

Fall cattle grazing in the Wallowa Mountains of Oregon facilitated an increase in standing biomass of Woods' rose/common snowberry combined at the end of the 2nd year of grazing. The riparian area was stocked at a rate of 1.3 to 1.7 ha/AUM. In year 2, standing biomass on grazed sites was 3,987 kg/ha and 3,213 kg/ha on ungrazed sites [125].

In the Little Missouri Badlands of southwestern North Dakota, Woods' rose responded more favorably to "moderate" grazing than "light" grazing. The cover and density for Woods' rose on moderately grazed sites was 9.77% and 19.70 stems/ha, respectively. The cover and density of Woods' rose on lightly grazed sites was 2.30% and 0.50 stems/ha, respectively [39].

Herbicides: Sites infested with spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) in Missoula County, Montana, were treated with picloram, clopyralid, and 2,4-D. Woods' rose occurred on 2 of the 4 sites treated and was not affected (positively or negatively) by the herbicides [186].

A quaking aspen-balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera ssp. balsamifera) forest in a northeastern Saskatchewan was treated with 2,4-D, 2,4-D + picloram, and glyphosate at several concentrations. Woods' rose was significantly (p<0.05) damaged by the herbicide treatments [229].

Host species: Woods' rose is a host to the fungus Cronartium comandrae in the Wood River District, Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. C. comandrae causes comandra blister rust disease in hard pines across much of Canada and the United States [246].

Invasive Species: Woods' rose is not negatively affected by leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula). In the Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota, Woods' rose occurrence is 17% greater on sites infested by leafy spurge than in areas not infested [38].

Rosa woodsii: REFERENCES

1. Agee, James K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-320. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23656]

2. Akashi, Yoshiko. 1988. Riparian vegetation dynamics along the Bighorn River, Wyoming. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming. 245 p. Thesis. [39266]

3. Allman, Verl Phillips. 1953. A preliminary study of the vegetation in an exclosure in the chaparral of the Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Utah Academy Proceedings. 30: 63-78. [9096]

4. Anderson, J. P. 1959. Flora of Alaska and adjacent parts of Canada. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 543 p. [9928]

5. Anderson, Murray L.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1979. Effect of fire on a Symphoricarpos occidentalis shrub community in central Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57: 2820-2823. [2867]

6. Armour, Charles D.; Bunting, Stephen C.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. 1984. Fire intensity effects on the understory in ponderosa pine forests. Journal of Range Management. 37(1): 44-48. [6618]

7. Armour, Charles D.; Bunting, Stephen C.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. [n.d.]. The effect of fire intensity on understory vegetational development. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 17 p. [30855]

8. Armstrong, Wayne P. 1966. Ecological and taxonomic relationships of Cupressus in southern California. Los Angles, CA: California State College. 129 p. Thesis. [21332]

9. Arno, Stephen F. 1976. The historical role of fire on the Bitterroot National Forest. Res. Pap. INT-187. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [15225]

10. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]

11. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]

12. Arno, Stephen F.; Fischer, William C. 1995. Larix occidentalis--fire ecology and fire management. In: Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J., compilers. Ecology and management of Larix forests: a look ahead: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1992 October 5-9; Whitefish, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-319. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 130-135. [25293]

13. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]

14. Arno, Stephen F.; Scott, Joe H.; Hartwell, Michael G. 1995. Age-class structure of old growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir stands and its relationship to fire history. Res. Pap. INT-RP-481. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 25 p. [25928]

15. Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. 1986. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 241-243. [350]

16. Austin, Dennis D.; Urness, Philip J. 1986. Effects of cattle grazing on mule deer diet and area selection. Journal of Range Management. 39(1): 18-21; 1986. [364]

17. Austin, Dennis D.; Urness, Philip J.; Riggs, Robert. 1986. Vegetal change in the absence of livestock grazing, mountain brush zone, Utah. Journal of Range Management. 39(6): 514-517; 1986. [365]

18. Bailey, A. W.; Irving, B. D.; Fitzgerald, R. D. 1990. Regeneration of woody species following burning and grazing in aspen parkland. Journal of Range Management. 43(3): 212-215. [11775]

19. Bailey, Arthur W.; Anderson, Murray L. 1980. Fire temperatures in grass, shrub and aspen forest communities of central Alberta. Journal of Range Management. 33(1): 37-40. [6937]

20. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]

21. Barrett, Stephen W. 1993. Fire regimes on the Clearwater and Nez Perce National Forests north-central Idaho. Final Report: Order No. 43-0276-3-0112. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. 21 p. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [41883]

22. Barrett, Stephen W.; Arno, Stephen F.; Key, Carl H. 1991. Fire regimes of western larch - lodgepole pine forests in Glacier National Park, Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 1711-1720. [17290]

23. Bartos, D. L.; Mueggler, W. F. 1981. Early succession in aspen communities following fire in western Wyoming. Journal of Range Management. 34(4): 315-318. [5100]

24. Bartos, Dale L.; Brown, James K.; Booth, Gordon D. 1994. Twelve years biomass response in aspen communities following fire. Journal of Range Management. 47: 79-83. [22891]

25. Beever, Erik A.; Pyke, David A.; Chambers, Jeanne C.; Landau, Fred; Smith, Stanley D. 2005. Monitoring temporal change in riparian vegetation of Great Basin National Park. Western North American Naturalist. 65(3): 382-402. [61326]

26. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

27. Bezeau, L. M.; Johnston, A. 1962. In vitro digestibility of range forage plants of the Festuca scabrella association. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 42: 692-697. [441]

28. Blackburn, Wilbert H.; Tueller, Paul T.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr. 1968. Vegetation and soils of the Mill Creek Watershed. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, College of Agriculture. 71 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. [12500]

29. Boggs, Keith Webster. 1984. Succession in riparian communities of the lower Yellowstone River, Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 107 p. Thesis. [7245]

30. Boggs, Keith; Hansen, Paul; Pfister, Robert; Joy, John. 1990. Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in northwestern Montana. Draft Version 1. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, Montana Riparian Association. 217 p. [8447]

31. Boggs, Keith; Weaver, T. 1992. Response of riparian shrubs to declining water availability. In: Clary, Warren P.; McArthur, E. Durant; Bedunah, Don; Wambolt, Carl L., comps. Proceedings--symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities; 1991 May 29-31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 48-51. [19094]

32. Boldt, Charles E.; Uresk, Daniel W.; Severson, Kieth E. 1979. Riparian woodlands in jeopardy on Northern High Plains. In: Johnson, R. Roy; McCormick, J. Frank, tech. coords. Strategies for protection and management of floodplain wetlands and other riparian ecosystems: Proceedings of the symposium; 1978 December 11-13; Callaway Gardens, GA. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-12. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 184-189. [4359]

33. Bradley, Anne F.; Fischer, William C.; Noste, Nonan V. 1992. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-290. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 92 p. [19558]

34. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands of Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18212]

35. Budd, A. C.; Campbell, J. B. 1959. Flowering sequence of a local flora. Journal of Range Management. 12: 127-132. [552]

36. Buhler, Matt L.; Anderson, Stanley H. 2001. Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) drumming log and habitat use in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. Western North American Naturalist. 61(2): 236-240. [43154]

37. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]

38. Butler, Jack L.; Cogan, Daniel R. 2004. Leafy spurge effects on patterns of plant species richness. Journal of Range Management. 57(3): 305-311. [49818]

39. Butler, Jack; Goetz, Harold. 1984. Influence of livestock on the composition and structure of green ash communities in the Northern Great Plains. In: Noble, Daniel L.; Winokur, Robert P., eds. Wooded draws: characteristics and values for the Northern Great Plains: Symposium proceedings; 1984 June 12-13; Rapid City, SD. Great Plains Agricultural Council Publication No. 111. Rapid City, SD: South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Biology Department: 44-49. [572]

40. Callow, J. Michael; Kantrud, Harold A.; Higgins, Kenneth F. 1992. First flowering dates and flowering periods of prairie plants at Woodworth, North Dakota. Prairie Naturalist. 24(2): 57-64. [20450]

41. Campbell, C. J.; Green, Win. 1968. Perpetual succession of stream-channel vegetation in a semiarid region. Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science. 5(2): 86-90. [53565]

42. Case, Richard L.; Kauffman, J. Boone. 1997. Wild ungulate influences on the recovery of willows, black cottonwood, and thin-leaf alder following cessation of cattle grazing in northeastern Oregon. Northwest Science. 71(2): 115-126. [27671]

43. Castetter, Edward F. 1935. Ethnobiological studies in the American Southwest. Biological Series No. 4: Volume 1. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico. 62 p. [35938]

44. Chambers, Jeanne C. 1989. Native species establishment on an oil drillpad site in the Uintah Mountains, Utah: effects of introduced grass density and fertilizer. Res. Pap. INT-402. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 9 p. [6885]

45. Cholewa, Anita F.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1983. Secondary succession in the Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus association. Northwest Science. 57(4): 273-282. [11402]

46. Clarke, S. E.; Tisdale, E. W.; Skoglund, N. A. 1943. The effects of climate and grazing practices on short-grass prairie vegetation in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. Tech. Bull. No. 46. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Dominion, Department of Agriculture. 53 p. [635]

47. Clary, Warren P.; Medin, Dean E. 1990. Differences in vegetation biomass and structure due to cattle grazing in a northern Nevada riparian ecosystem. Res. Pap. INT-427. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 8 p. [15531]

48. Clary, Warren P.; Medin, Dean E. 1993. Vegetation, nesting bird, and small mammal characteristics--Wet Creek, Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-293. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 11 p. [21292]

49. Clary, Warren P.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Dudley, Jonathan G.; Saab, Victoria A.; Kinney, John W.; Smithman, Lynda C. 1996. Response of a depleted sagebrush steppe riparian system to grazing control and woody plantings. Res. Pap. INT-RP-492. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 32 p. [27300]

50. Collins, Ellen I. 1984. Preliminary classification of Wyoming plant communities. Cheyenne, WY: Wyoming Natural Heritage Program/The Nature Conservancy. 42 p. [661]

51. Conrad, C. Eugene. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral and associated ecosystems of southern California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 86 p. [4209]

52. Cooper, Charles F. 1960. Changes in vegetation, structure, and growth of southwestern pine forests since white settlement. Ecological Monographs. 30(2): 129-164. [3927]

53. Costello, David F. 1944. Important species of the major forage types in Colorado and Wyoming. Ecological Monographs. 14(1): 107-134. [693]

54. Cowardin, Lewis M.; Gilmer, David S.; Shaiffer, Charles W. 1985. Mallard recruitment in the agricultural environment of North Dakota. Wildlife Monographs. 92: 1-37. [25560]

55. Crane, M. F.; Fischer, William C. 1986. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of central Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-218. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 85 p. [5297]

56. Crane, Marilyn F. 1982. Fire ecology of Rocky Mountain Region forest habitat types. Final report: Contract No. 43-83X9-1-884. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 1. 272 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [5292]

57. Crawford, Rex C.; Kagan, Jimmy. 2001. Wildlife-habitat types: 16. Shrub-steppe. In: Northwest Habitat Institute, Interactive Biodiversity Information System (IBIS) [Online]. [Adapted from Johnson, David H.; O'Neil, Thomas A., eds. Wildlife-habitat relationships in Oregon and Washington. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press]. Available: http://www.nwhi.org/index/habdescriptions [2006, May 16]. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [62019]

58. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Noel H.; Holmgren, Patricia K. 1997. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 3, Part A: Subclass Rosidae (except Fabales). New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 446 p. [28652]

59. Crouch, Glenn L. 1983. Effects of commercial clearcutting of aspen on understory vegetation and wildlife habitat values in southwestern Colorado. Res. Pap. RM-246. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 8 p. [3200]

60. Davis, Dan; Butterfield, Bart. 1991. The Bitterroot Grizzly Bear Evaluation Area: A report to the Bitterroot Technical Review Team. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 56 p. [30041]

61. Davis, James N.; Welch, Bruce L. 1985. Winter preference, nutritive value, and other range use characteristics of Kochia prostrata (L.) Schrad. The Great Basin Naturalist. 45(4): 778-783. [759]

62. Davis, Kathleen M. 1980. Fire history of a western larch/Douglas-fir forest type in northwestern Montana. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., tech. coords. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 69-74. [12813]

63. del Moral, Roger; Watson, Alan F. 1978. Gradient structure of forest vegetation in the central Washington Cascades. Vegetatio. 38(1): 29-48. [8800]

64. Dietz, Donald R. 1972. Nutritive value of shrubs. In: McKell, Cyrus M.; Blaisdell, James P.; Goodin, Joe R., tech. eds. Wildland shrubs--their biology and utilization: An international symposium; Proceedings; 1971 July; Logan, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-1. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 289-302. [801]

65. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]

66. Dorn, Robert D. 1977. Flora of the Black Hills. Cheyenne, WY: Robert D. Dorn and Jane L. Dorn. 377 p. [820]

67. Dorn, Robert D. 1984. Vascular plants of Montana. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 276 p. [819]

68. Dorn, Robert D. 1988. Vascular plants of Wyoming. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 340 p. [6129]

69. Douchette, K. M.; Wittenberg, K. M.; McCaughey, W. P. 2001. Seed recovery and germination of reseeded species fed cattle. Journal of Range Management. 54(5): 575-581. [39414]

70. Douglass, Richard J. 1989. The use of radio-telemetry to evalutate microhabitat selection by deer mouse. Journal of Mammalogy. 70(3): 648-652. [25533]

71. Duchesne, Luc C.; Hawkes, Brad C. 2000. Fire in northern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 35-51. [36982]

72. Dwire, Kathleen A.; Ryan, Sandra E.; Shirley, Laura J.; Lytjen, Danna; Otting, Nick. 2004. Recovery of riparian shrubs following wildfire: influence of herbivory, [Online]. In: Lowrance, Richard, ed. Riparian ecosystems and buffers: multi-scale structure, function, and management AWRA summer specialty conference: Proceedings; 2004 June 28-30; Olympic Valley, CA. Middleburg, VA: American Water Resources Association (Producer): 1-6. Available: http://www.awra.org/proceedings/cd_proceedings.html [2005, February 23]. [51717]

73. Eggler, Willis A. 1980. Live oak. In: Eyre, F. H., ed. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters: 63-64. [49984]

74. Ehleringer, James R.; Arnow, Lois A.; Arnow, Ted; McNulty, Irving B.; Negus, Norman C. 1992. Red Butte Canyon Research Natural Area: history, flora, geology, climate, and ecology. The Great Basin Naturalist. 52(2): 95-121. [19687]

75. Erickson, D. O.; Barker, W. T.; Wanapat, S.; Williamson, R. L. 1981. Nutritional composition of common shrubs in North Dakota. Proceedings, North Dakota Academy of Science. 35: 4. [6454]

76. Erlanson, Eileen Whitehead. 1934. Experimental data for a revision of the North American wild roses. Botanical Gazette. 96(2): 197-259. [12434]

77. Evans, Keith E.; Dietz, Donald R. 1974. Nutritional energetics of sharp-tailed grouse during winter. Journal of Wildlife Management. 38(4): 622-629. [14152]

78. Evenden, Angela G. 1989. Ecology and distribution of riparian vegetation in the Trout Creek Mountains of southeastern Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 156 p. Dissertation. [10231]

79. Everett, Richard L.; Meeuwig, Richard O.; Butterfield, Richard I. 1980. Revegetation of untreated acid spoils: Leviathan mine, Alpine County, California. California Geology. 32(1): 8-10. [895]

80. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

81. Ferguson, Robert B. 1983. Use of rosaceous shrubs for wildland plantings in the Intermountain West. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Shaw, Nancy, comps. Managing Intermountain rangelands--improvement of range and wildlife habitats; Proceedings of symposia; 1981 September 15-17; Twin Falls, ID; 1982 June 22-24; Elko, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-157. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 136-149. [915]

82. Ferguson, Robert B.; Frischknecht, Neil C. 1985. Reclamation on Utah's Emery and Alton coal fields: techniques and plant materials. Res. Pap. INT-335. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 78 p. [917]

83. Fernandes, G. Wilson. 1992. A gradient analysis of plant forms from northern Arizona. Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science. 24-25: 21-30. [18248]

84. Finney, Mark A.; Martin, Robert E. 1989. Fire history in a Sequoia sempervirens forest at Salt Point State Park, California. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 19: 1451-1457. [9845]

85. Ganey, Joseph L.; Block, William M.; Jenness, Jeffrey S.; Wilson, Randolph A. 1999. Mexican spotted owl home range and habitat use in pine--oak forest: implications for forest management. Forest Science. 45(1): 127-135. [30351]

86. Gardner, R. B.; Hungerford, R. D. 1975. Evaluating road design, construction, and revegetation alternatives. In: Forest residues utilization research and development program. Progress Rep. 1. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 41-49. [15412]

87. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

88. Girard, Michele M.; Goetz, Harold; Bjugstad, Ardell J. 1989. Native woodland habitat types of southwestern North Dakota. Res. Pap. RM-281. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 36 p. [6319]

89. Gom, Lori A.; Rood, Stewart B. 1999. Fire induces clonal sprouting of riparian cottonwoods. Canadian Journal of Botany. 77(11): 1604-1616. [38169]

90. Goodrich, Sherel; Neese, Elizabeth. 1986. Uinta Basin flora. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ashley National Forest; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Vernal District. 320 p. [23307]

91. Gordon, Floyd A. 1976. Spring burning in an aspen-conifer stand for maintenance of moose habitat, West Boulder River, Montana. In: Proceedings, Montana Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 501-538. [13529]

92. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]

93. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. [3862]

94. Gruell, George E. 1997. Historical role of fire in pinyon-juniper woodlands: Walker River Watershed Project, Bridgeport Ranger District. Bridgeport, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest, Bridgeport Ranger District. 20 p. [38766]

95. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D.; Mather, J. 1990. Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A literature review. Economic and Regional Development Agreement: FRDA Report 158. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre; British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research Branch. 272 p. [18033]

96. Hall, James B.; Hansen, Paul L. 1997. A preliminary riparian habitat type classification system for the Bureau of Land Management districts in southern and eastern Idaho. Tech. Bull. No. 97-11. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management; Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Riparian and Wetland Research Program. 381 p. [28173]

97. Hanks, Jess P.; Dick-Peddie, W. A. 1974. Vegetation patterns of the White Mountains, New Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist. 18(4): 371-382. [4635]

98. Hansen, Paul L.; Boggs, Keith; Pfister, Robert D.; Joy, John; Cook, Brad. 1994. Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in Montana. In: Hamre, R. H., ed. Workshop on western wetlands and riparian areas: public/private efforts in recovery, management, and education: Proceedings; 1993 September 9-11; Snowbird, UT. Boulder, CO: Thorne Ecological Institute: 1-17. [27800]

99. Hansen, Paul L.; Chadde, Steve W.; Pfister, Robert D. 1988. Riparian dominance types of Montana. Misc. Publ. No. 49. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station. 411 p. [5660]

100. Hansen, Paul; Boggs, Keith; Pfister, Robert; Joy, John. 1990. Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in central and eastern Montana. Draft Version 2. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, Montana Riparian Association. 279 p. [12477]

101. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2d ed. Chicago: The Swallow Press, Inc. 666 p. [6851]

102. Harris, Richard R. 1989. Riparian communities of the Sierra Nevada and their environmental relationships. In: Abell, Dana L., technical coordinator. Proceedings of the California riparian systems conference: Protection, management, and restoration for the 1990's; 1988 September 22-24; Davis, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-110. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 393-398. [13768]

103. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]

104. Hayward, Herman E. 1928. Studies of plants in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Botanical Gazette. 85(4): 353-412. [1110]

105. Hendricks, Paul; Allard, Herbert F. 1988. Winter food habits of prairie porcupines in Montana. Prairie Naturalist. 20(1): 1-6. [9334]

106. Heyerdahl, Emily K.; Berry, Dawn; Agee, James K. 1994. Fire history database of the western United States. Final report. Interagency agreement: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency DW12934530; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service PNW-93-0300; University of Washington 61-2239. Seattle, WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station; University of Washington, College of Forest Resources. 28 p. [+ appendices]. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [27979]

107. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]

108. Hill, A. Clyde; Hill, Steven; Lamb, Connie; Barrett, Thomas W. 1974. Sensitivity of native desert vegetation to SO2 and to SO2 and NO2 combined. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. 24(2): 153-157. [54092]

109. Hill, Ralph R. 1946. Palatability ratings of Black Hills plants for white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management. 10(1): 47-54. [3270]

110. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1961. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 3: Saxifragaceae to Ericaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 614 p. [1167]

111. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

112. Hobbs, N. Thompson; Baker, Dan L.; Ellis, James E.; Swift, David M. 1981. Composition and quality of elk winter diets in Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management. 45(1): 156-171. [7421]

113. Hopkins, Rick B.; Cassel, J. Frank; Bjugstad, Ardell J. 1986. Relationships between breeding birds and vegetation in four woodland types of the Little Missouri National Grasslands. Res. Pap. RM-270. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [2758]

114. Hultén, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403]

115. Hungerford, C. R. 1970. Response of Kaibab mule deer to management of summer range. Journal of Wildlife Management. 34(40): 852-862. [1219]

116. Hungerford, Roger D. 1984. Native shrubs: suitability for revegetating road cuts in northwestern Montana. Res. Pap. INT-331. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 13 p. [1220]

117. Jankovsky-Jones, Mabel; Rust, Steven K.; Moseley, Robert K. 1999. Riparian reference areas in Idaho: a catalog of plant associations and conservation sites. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-20. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 141 p. [29900]

118. Johnson, Douglas H. 1997. Effects of fire on bird populations in mixed-grass prairie. In: Knopf, Frtiz L.; Samson, Fred B., eds. Ecology and conservation of Great Plains vertebrates. Ecological Studies, Vol. 25. New York: Springer-Verlag: 181-206. [27815]

119. Johnston, A.; Bezeau, L. M. 1962. Chemical composition of range forage plants of the Festuca scabrella association. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 42: 105-115. [1291]

120. Johnston, Robert S.; Doty, Robert D. 1972. Description and hydrologic analysis of two small watersheds in Utah's Wasatch Mountains. Res. Pap. INT-127. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 53 p. [8189]

121. Jones, Stanley D.; Wipff, Joseph K.; Montgomery, Paul M. 1997. Vascular plants of Texas. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 404 p. [28762]

122. Jorgensen, Kent R.; Stevens, Richard. 2004. Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L., comps. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol-3. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 699-716. [42398]

123. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with: The Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]

124. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 2 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]

125. Kauffman, J. Boone; Krueger, W. C.; Vavra, M. 1983. Effects of late season cattle grazing on riparian plant communities. Journal of Range Management. 36(6): 685-691. [16965]

126. Kauffman, J. Boone; Krueger, W. C.; Vavra, M. 1985. Ecology and plant communities of the riparian areas associated with Catherine Creek in northeastern Oregon. Tech. Bull. 147. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 35 p. [6174]

127. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]

128. Klebenow, Donald A. 1965. A montane forest winter deer habitat in western Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 29(1): 27-33. [8430]

129. Klott, James H.; Smith, Randy B.; Vullo, Charlene. 1993. Sage grouse habitat use in the Brown's Bench Area of south-central Idaho. Tech. Bulletin No. 93-4. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office. 14 p. [23680]

130. Knapp, Paul A. 1991. The response of semi-arid vegetation assemblages following the abandonment of mining towns in southwestern Montana. Journal of Arid Environments. 20: 205-222. [14894]

131. Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Clausnitzer, Rodrick R. 2004. Classification and management of aquatic, riparian, and wetland sites on the national forests of eastern Washington: series description. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-593. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 354 p. [53329]

132. Kruse, Arnold D.; Higgins, Kenneth F. 1998. Effects of prescribed fire upon wildlife habitat in northern mixed-grass prairie. In: Alexander, M. E.; Bisgrove, G. F., tech. coords. The art and science of fire management: Proceedings of the 1st Interior West Fire Council annual meeting and workshop; 1988 October 24-27; Kananaskis Village, AB. Information Report NOR-X-309. Edmonton, AB: Forestry Canada, Northwest Region, Northern Forestry Centre: 182-193. [40285]

133. Kucera, Clair L. 1981. Grasslands and fire. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; Lotan, J. E.; Reiners, W. A., tech. coords. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 90-111. [4389]

134. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]

135. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1986. Plants of west-central Montana--identification and ecology: annotated checklist. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-217. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [2955]

136. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1991. Vascular plants of west-central Montana--identification guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-227. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 648 p. [13798]

137. Ladenburger, C. G.; Hild, A. L.; Kazmer, D. J.; Munn, L. C. 2006. Soil salinity patterns in Tamarix invasions in the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming, USA. Journal of Arid Environments. 65(1): 111-128. [60811]

138. Langenheim, Jean H. 1956. Plant succession on a subalpine earthflow in Colorado. Ecology. 37(2): 301-317. [50443]

139. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., tech. coords. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]

140. Lawrence, Donna L.; Romo, J. T. 1995. Tree and shrub communities of wooded draws near the Matador Research Station in southern Saskatchewan. The Canadian Field Naturalist. 108(4): 397-412. [46867]

141. Laycock, William A. 1958. The initial pattern of revegetation of pocket gopher mounds. Ecology. 39(2): 346-351. [60157]

142. Leary, Patrick J. 1988. Plant succession after fire, Hunter Mountain, Death Valley National Monument. Report No. 034/06. Las Vegas, NV: University of Nevada, Department of Biological Sciences, Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. 30 p. [14926]

143. Lokemoen, John T.; Duebbert, Harold F.; Sharp, David E. 1990. Homing and reproductive habits of mallards, gadwalls, and blue-winged teal. Wildlife Monographs. 106: 1-28. [18102]

144. Lovich, Jeffrey E.; Egan, Thomas B.; de Gouvenain, Roland C. 1994. Tamarisk control on public lands in the desert of southern California: two case studies. In: Environmental stewardship through weed control: Proceedings, 46th annual California Weed Science Society conference; 1994 January 17-19; San Jose, California. No. 46. Fremont, CA: California Weed Science Society: 166-177. [44086]

145. Macdonald, Bruce. 1990. Ornamental native plants of British Columbia: their selection, propagation, and introduction. Proceedings, International Plant Propagators' Society. 39: 243-249. [49460]

146. Mace, Richard D.; Bissell, Gael N. 1986. Grizzly bear food resources in the flood plains and avalanche chutes of the Bob Marshall Wilderness, Montana. In: Contreras, Glen P.; Evans, Keith E., comps. Proceedings--grizzly bear habitat symposium; 1985 April 30 - May 2; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-207. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 78-91. [10812]

147. Major, J.; Rejmanek, M. 1992. Amelanchier alnifolia vegetation in eastern Idaho, USA and its environmental relationships. Vegetatio. 98: 141-156. [19831]

148. Manning, Mary E.; Padgett, Wayne G. 1989. Preliminary riparian community type classification for Nevada. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. Preliminary draft. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 135 p. [11531]

149. Manning, Mary E.; Padgett, Wayne G. 1995. Riparian community type classification for Humboldt and Toiyabe National Forests, Nevada and eastern California. R4-Ecol-95-01. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 306 p. [42196]

150. Martin, William C.; Hutchins, Charles R. 1981. A flora of New Mexico. Volume 2. Germany: J. Cramer. 2589 p. [37176]

151. McArthur, E. Durant; Giunta, Bruce C.; Plummer, A. Perry. 1977. Shrubs for restoration of depleted range and disturbed areas. Utah Science. 35: 28-33. [25035]

152. McCarthy, Judith Colleen. 1996. A floristic survey of the Pryor Mountains, Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 93 p. Thesis. [46912]

153. McCreedy, Chris; Heath, Sacha K. 2004. Atypical willow flycatcher nesting sites in a recovering riparian corridor at Mono Lake, California. Western Birds. 35(4): 197-209. [60409]

154. McKell, Cyrus M. 1950. A study of plant succession in the oak brush (Quercus gambelii) zone after fire. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah. 79 p. Thesis. [1608]

155. McPherson, Guy R. 1995. The role of fire in the desert grasslands. In: McClaran, Mitchel P.; Van Devender, Thomas R., eds. The desert grassland. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press: 130-151. [26576]

156. Medin, Dean E. 1990. Birds of an upper sagebrush-grass zone habitat in east-central Nevada. Res. Pap. INT-433. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 7 p. [15532]

157. Medin, Dean E.; Clary, Warren P. 1989. Small mammal populations in a grazed and ungrazed riparian habitat in Nevada. Res. Pap. INT-143. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 6 p. [10530]

158. Meier, Gretchen; Weaver, T. 1997. Desirables and weeds for roadside management--a northern Rocky Mountain catalogue. Report No. RHWA/MT-97/8115. Final report: July 1994-December 1997. Helena, MT: State of Montana Department of Transportation, Research, Development, and Technology Transfer Program. 145 p. [29135]

159. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]

160. Merritt, David M.; Wohl, Ellen E. 2006. Plant dispersal along rivers fragmented by dams. River Research and Applications. 22: 1-26. [61821]

161. Meyer, Susan E. [In press]. Rosa L. -- rose, briar [Online]. In: Bonner, Franklin T.; Nisley, Rebecca G.; Karrfait, R. P.; coords. Woody plant seed manual. Agric. Handbook 727. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (Producer). Available: http://www.nsl.fs.usda.gov/wpsm/Rosa.pdf [2006, June 13]. [62281]

162. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [25666]

163. Mitchell, George J.; Riegert, Paul W. 1994. Sharp-tailed grouse, Tympanuchus phasianellus, and grasshoppers: food is when you find it. The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 108(3): 288-291. [46880]

164. Mitchell, Jerry M. 1984. Fire management action plan: Zion National Park, Utah. Record of Decision. 73 p. Salt Lake City, UT: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17278]

165. Morrison, Peter H.; Swanson, Frederick J. 1990. Fire history and pattern in a Cascade Range landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-254. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 77 p. [13074]

166. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]

167. Muldavin, Esteban; Durkin, Paula; Bradley, Mike; Stuever, Mary; Mehlhop, Patricia. 2000. Handbook of wetland vegetation communities of New Mexico. Volume I: classification and community descriptions. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico, Biology Department; New Mexico Natural Heritage Program. 172 p. (+ appendices). [45517]

168. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]

169. Munz, Philip A. 1974. A flora of southern California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1086 p. [4924]

170. Neuenschwander, L. F. 1978. The fire induced autecology of selected shrubs of the cold desert and surrounding forests: A-state-of-the-art review. Unpublished manuscript on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 31 p. [1747]

171. Nimlos, Thomas J.; Van Meter, Wayne P.; Daniels, Lewis A. 1968. Rooting patterns of forest understory species as determined by radioiodine absorption. Ecology. 49(6): 1145-1151. [4120]

172. Nixon, Elray S. 1967. A comparative study of the mountain brush vegetation in Utah. The Great Basin Naturalist. 27(2): 59-66. [9099]

173. Olson, Rich. 1992. White-tailed deer habitat requirements and management in Wyoming. B-964. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Cooperative Extension Service. 17 p. [20678]

174. Ostler, William K.; Buchanan, Hayle. 1973. The effects of slope exposure on plant communities. Proceedings, Utah Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 50(2): 58-63. [42486]

175. Padgett, Wayne G.; Youngblood, Andrew P.; Winward, Alma H. 1989. Riparian community type classification of Utah and southeastern Idaho. R4-Ecol-89-01. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 191 p. [11360]

176. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Haase, Sally M.; Harrington, Michael G.; Narog, Marcia G.; Sackett, Stephen S.; Wilson, Ruth C. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-volume 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]

177. Peters, Erin F.; Bunting, Stephen C. 1994. Fire conditions pre- and postoccurrence of annual grasses on the Snake River Plain. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., comps. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 31-36. [24249]

178. Platts, William S.; Armour, Carl; Booth, Gordon D.; Bryant, Mason; Bufford, Judith L.; Cuplin, Paul; Jensen, Sherman; Lienkaemper, George W.; Minshall, G. Wayne; Monsen, Stephen B.; Nelson, Roger L.; Sedell, James R.; Tuhy, Joel S. 1987. Methods for evaluating riparian habitats with applications to management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-221. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 177 p. [6171]

179. Plummer, A. Perry. 1970. Plants for revegetation of roadcuts and other disturbed or eroded areas. Range Improvement Notes. [Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region]. 15(1): 1-10. [1897]

180. Plummer, A. Perry. 1977. Revegetation of disturbed Intermountain area sites. In: Thames, J. C., ed. Reclamation and use of disturbed lands of the Southwest. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press: 302-337. [27411]

181. Powell, A. Michael. 1988. Trees and shrubs of Trans-Pecos Texas: Including Big Bend and Guadalupe Mountains National Parks. Big Bend National Park, TX: Big Bend Natural History Association. 536 p. [6130]

182. Prose, Bart L. 1987. Habitat suitability index models: plains sharp-tailed grouse. Biological Report 82(10.142). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, National Ecology Center. 31 p. [23499]

183. Quinnild, Clayton L.; Cosby, Hugh E. 1958. Relicts of climax vegetation on two mesas in western North Dakota. Ecology. 39(1): 29-32. [1925]

184. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

185. Redmann, Robert E.; Schwarz, Arthur G. 1986. Dry grassland plant communities in Wood Buffalo National Park, Alberta. The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 100(4): 526-532. [4030]

186. Rice, P. M.; Toney, J. C. 1996. Plant population responses to broadcast herbicide applications for spotted knapweed control. Down to Earth. 51(2): 14-19. [27754]

187. Ripple, William J. 1994. Historic spatial patterns of old forests in western Oregon. Journal of Forestry. 92(11): 45-49. [33881]

188. Roppe, Jerry A.; Hein, Dale. 1978. Effects of fire on wildlife in a lodgepole pine forest. The Southwestern Naturalist. 23(2): 279-287. [261]

189. Rowe, J. S. 1969. Lightning fires in Saskatchewan grassland. The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 83: 317-324. [6266]

190. Rumble, Mark A.; Hodorff, Robert A. 1993. Nesting ecology of Merriam's turkeys in the Black Hills, South Dakota. Journal of Wildlife Management. 57(4): 789-801. [22893]

191. Saab, Victoria Ann; Marks, Jeffrey Shaw. 1992. Summer habitat use by Columbian sharp-tailed grouse in western Idaho. The Great Basin Naturalist. 52(2): 166-173. [19689]

192. Sapsis, David B. 1990. Ecological effects of spring and fall prescribed burning on basin big sagebrush/Idaho fescue--bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 105 p. Thesis. [16579]

193. Schneider, Rick E.; Faber-Langendoen, Don; Crawford, Rex C.; Weakley, Alan S. 1997. The status of biodiversity in the Great Plains: Great Plains vegetation classification. Supplemental Document 1. In: Ostlie, Wayne R.; Schneider, Rick E.; Aldrich, Janette Marie; Faust, Thomas M.; McKim, Robert L. B.; Chaplin, Stephen J., compilers. The status of biodiversity in the Great Plains, [Online]. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy (Producer). 75 p. Available: http://conserveonline.org/docs/2005/02/greatplains_vegclass_97.pdf [2006 May 16]. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [62020]

194. Schultz, Brad W. 1987. Ecology of curlleaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) in western and central Nevada: population structure and dynamics. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 111 p. Thesis. [7064]

195. Seklecki, Mariette T.; Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1996. Fire history and the possible role of Apache-set fires in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; DeBano, Leonard F.; Baker, Malchus B., Jr.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Solis-Garza, Gilberto; Edminster, Carleton B.; Neary, Daniel G.; Allen, Larry S.; Hamre, R. H., tech. coords. Effects of fire on Madrean Province ecosystems: a symposium proceedings; 1996 March 11-15; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-289. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 238-246. [28082]

196. Selmants, Paul C.; Knight, Dennis H. 2003. Understory plant species composition 30-50 years after clearcutting in southeastern Wyoming coniferous forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 185: 275-289. [46096]

197. Severson, Kieth E.; Thilenius, John F. 1976. Classification of quaking aspen stands in the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. Res. Pap. RM-166. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p. [2111]

198. Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of native shrubs. In: Murphy, P. M., comp. The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area: Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman's Association conference; 1983 August 8-11; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 6-15. [6850]

199. Shaw, Nancy L.; Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard. 2004. Rosaceous shrubs. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol-2. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 539-596. [52845]

200. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]

201. Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C. 1997. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-363. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 142 p. [27992]

202. Smith, Stanley D.; Murray, Kevin J.; Landau, Frederick H.; Sala, Anna M. 1995. Structure of woody riparian vegetation in Great Basin National Park. In: Roundy, Bruce A.; McArthur, E. Durant; Haley, Jennifer S.; Mann, David K., compilers. Proceedings: wildland shrub and arid land restoration symposium; 1993 October 19-21; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-315. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 246-251. [24856]

203. Stephens, H. A. 1973. Woody plants of the North Central Plains. Lawrence, KS: The University Press of Kansas. 530 p. [3804]

204. Stevens, David R. 1970. Winter ecology of moose in the Gallatin Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 34(1): 37-46. [7932]

205. Stevens, O. A. 1957. Weights of seeds and numbers per plant. Weeds. 5: 46-55. [44071]

206. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. FEIS postfire regeneration workshop--April 12: Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. 10 p. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [20090]

207. Stockrahm, Donna M. Bruns; Olson, Theresa Ebbenga; Harper, Elizabeth K. 1993. Plant species in black-tailed prairie dog towns in Billings County, North Dakota. Prairie Naturalist. 25(2): 173-183. [23167]

208. Stromberg, Julie C.; Patten, Duncan T. 1989. Early recovery of an eastern Sierra Nevada riparian system after 40 years of stream diversion. In: Abell, Dana L., tech. coord. Proceedings of the California riparian systems conference: Protection, management, and restoration for the 1990's; 1988 September 22-24; Davis, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-110. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 399-404. [13770]

209. Stromberg, Juliet C.; Patten, Duncan T. 1992. Mortality and age of black cottonwood stands along diverted and undiverted streams in the eastern Sierra Nevada, California. Madrono. 39(3): 205-223. [19148]

210. Stuart, John D. 1987. Fire history of an old-growth forest of Sequoia sempervirens (Taxodiaceae) forest in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California. Madrono. 34(2): 128-141. [7277]

211. Stubbendieck, James; Hatch, Stephan L.; Butterfield, Charles H. 1992. North American range plants. 4th ed. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 493 p. [25162]

212. Swain, Albert M. 1978. Environmental changes during the past 2000 years in north-central Wisconsin: analysis of pollen, charcoal, and seeds from varved lake sediments. Quaternary Research. 10: 55-68. [6968]

213. Swenson, Jon E. 1981. The hardwood draws of southeastern Montana: their importance to wildlife and vulnerability to man's activities. In: Proceedings, Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society: 37-61. [47224]

214. Swenson, Jon E. 1985. Seasonal habitat use by sharp-tailed grouse, Tympanuchus phasianellus, on mixed-grass prairie in Montana. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 99(1): 40-46. [23501]

215. Swetnam, Thomas W.; Baisan, Christopher H.; Brown, Peter M.; Caprio, Anthony C. 1989. Fire history of Rhyolite Canyon, Chiricahua National Monument. Tech. Rep. No. 32. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. 47 p. [10573]

216. Tande, Gerald F. 1979. Fire history and vegetation pattern of coniferous forests in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57: 1912-1931. [18676]

217. Tolstead, W. L. 1947. Woodlands in northeastern Nebraska. Ecology. 28(2): 180-188. [18408]

218. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 1976. Some important native shrubs of the West. Ogden, UT. 16 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [2388]

219. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]

220. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Tucson Plant Materials Center. 2001. Commercial sources of conservation plant materials, [Online]. Available: http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/azpmsarseedlist0501.pdf [2003, August 25]. [44989]

221. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. PLANTS database (2006), [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov /. [34262]

222. Vestal, Paul A. 1952. Ethnobotany of the Ramah Navaho. Reports of the Ramah Project: No. 4. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. 40(4): 1-94. [37064]

223. Viereck, Leslie A.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. Agric. Handb. 410. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 265 p. [6884]

224. Vincent, Dwain W. 1992. The sagebrush/grasslands of the upper Rio Puerco area, New Mexico. Rangelands. 14(5): 268-271. [19698]

225. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 1104 p. [7707]

226. Vogl, Richard J.; Armstrong, Wayne P.; White, Keith L.; Cole, Kenneth L. 1977. The closed-cone pines and cypress. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 295-358. [7219]

227. Vose, James M.; White, Alan S. 1987. Processes of understory seedling recruitment 1 year after prescribed fire in an Arizona ponderosa pine community. Canadian Journal of Botany. 65: 2280-2290. [4053]

228. Vose, James M.; White, Alan S. 1991. Biomass response mechanisms of understory species the first year after prescribed burning in an Arizona ponderosa pine community. Forest Ecology and Management. 40(3/4): 175-187. [35011]

229. Waddington, John; Bittman, Shabtai. 1987. Control of brush regrowth in northeastern Saskatchewan by several concentrations of herbicides applied with a roller. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 67: 467-475. [3833]

230. Wade, Dale D.; Brock, Brent L.; Brose, Patrick H.; Grace, James B.; Hoch, Greg A.; Patterson, William A., III. 2000. Fire in eastern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 53-96. [36983]

231. Waller, Amy Johnston. 1992. Seasonal habitat use of river otters in northwestern Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 75 p. Thesis. [20659]

232. Walters, M. Alice; Teskey, Robert O.; Hinckley, Thomas M. 1980. Impact of water level changes on woody riparian and wetland communities. Volume VII: Mediterranean Region; Western Arid and Semi-Arid Region. Biological Services Program: FWS/OBS-78/93. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 84 p. [52899]

233. Wasser, Clinton H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the West. FWS/OBS-82/56. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 347 p. [15400]

234. Weber, William A. 1987. Colorado flora: western slope. Boulder, CO: Colorado Associated University Press. 530 p. [7706]

235. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2d ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]

236. Welch, Bruce L. 2004. Rosa woodsii. In: Francis, John K., ed. Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. IITF-GTR-26. San Juan, PR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry; Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 649-651. [52242]

237. Welch, Bruce L.; Andrus, Dean. 1977. Rose hips--a possible high-energy food for wintering mule deer. Res. Note INT-221. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 5 p. [5519]

238. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]

239. Whisenant, Steven G. 1990. Postfire population dynamics of Bromus japonicus. The American Midland Naturalist. 123: 301-308. [11150]

240. Willard, E. Earl; Herman, Margaret. 1977. Grizzly bear and its habitat. Final Report. [Cooperative Agreement between U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 1 and University of Montana, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station]. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 28 p. [15115]

241. Wilson, Roger E. 1970. Succession in stands of Populus deltoides along the Missouri River in southeastern South Dakota. The American Midland Naturalist. 83(2): 330-342. [25441]

242. Wright, Henry A. 1974. Range burning. Journal of Range Management. 27(1): 5-11. [2613]

243. Wright, Henry A.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire ecology: United States and southern Canada. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. [2620]

244. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]

245. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1981. Demography and fire history of a western juniper stand. Journal of Range Management. 34(6): 501-505. [2659]

246. Zentz, W. R.; Jacobi, W. R. 1989. Ecology of Comandra umbellata (Santalaceae) in western Wyoming. The Great Basin Naturalist. 49(4): 650-655. [9907]

247. Zigmond, Maurice L. 1981. Kawaisu ethnobotany. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press. 102 p. [35936]