Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
|
|
 |
| Eastern teaberry. Image by Rob Routledge, Sault College, Bugwood.org. |
Introductory
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
Coladonato, Milo. 1994. Gaultheria procumbens. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/gaupro/all.html [].
Revisions:
On 13 July 2018, the common name of this species was changed in FEIS
from: wintergreen
to: eastern teaberry. Images were also added.
ABBREVIATION:
GAUPRO
SYNONYMS:
NO-ENTRY
NRCS PLANT CODE:
GAPR2
COMMON NAMES:
eastern teaberry
teaberry
wintergreen
TAXONOMY:
The scientific name of eastern teaberry is Gaultheria
procumbens L. (Ericaceae) [18]. There are no infrataxa.
LIFE FORM:
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
No special status
OTHER STATUS:
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Eastern teaberry occurs from Newfoundland and New England south in the
mountains to Georgia and west to Minnesota [13,32].
 |
| Distribution of eastern teaberry. Map courtesy of USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database.
National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC [2018, July 13] [61]. |
ECOSYSTEMS:
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
STATES:
AL CT DE GA IL IN KY ME MD MA
MI MN NH NJ NY NC OH PA RI TN
VT VA WV WI MB NB NF NS ON PE
PQ
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS:
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
SAF COVER TYPES:
1 Jack pine
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
14 Northern pin oak
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
17 Pin cherry
18 Paper birch
19 Gray birch - red maple
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
28 Black cherry - maple
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white-cedar
38 Tamarack
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
43 Bear oak
45 Pitch pine
46 Eastern redcedar
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
57 Yellow-poplar
60 Beech - sugar maple
62 Silver maple - American elm
73 Southern redcedar
75 Shortleaf pine
79 Virginia pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES:
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:
Eastern teaberry is commonly found in the understory of pine (Pinus spp.) and
hardwood forests of New England. In western Nova Scotia and the Great
Lake States, it occurs in jack pine (P. banksiana) and spruce-larch
(Picea spp.-Larix spp.) forests [4,20,53,59]. It is a common understory
species in maple-oak (Acer spp.-Quercus spp.) forests of upper Michigan
[52]. It is a dominant understory shrub of oak-poplar/fern (Quercus
spp.-Populus spp./Pteridium spp.) communities of southern New York [60].
Eastern teaberry is named as a dominant or codominant understory species in
the following classifications:
Habitat classification system field guide: northern Lake States Region
(Upper Peninsula of Michigan and northeast Wisconsin) [8]
Forest-type studies in the Adirondack Region [19]
Field guide to forest habitat types of northern Wisconsin [21]
Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains [42]
Understory species commonly associated with eastern teaberry include
huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.), blueberries (Vaccinium spp.),
raspberries (Rubus spp.), grapes (Vitis spp.), mountain-laurel (Kalmia
latifolia), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), witchhazel
(Hamamelis virginiana), bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum),
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), and lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum
canadense), [7,24,35,42].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:
Eastern teaberry is not taken in large quantities by any species of wildlife,
but the regularity of its use enhances its importance. Its fruit
persists through the winter and it is one of the few sources of green
leaves in winter [32]. White-tailed deer browse eastern teaberry throughout
its range, and in some localities it is an important winter food. Other
animals that eat eastern teaberry are wild turkey, sharp-tailed grouse,
northern bobwhite, ring-necked pheasant, black bear, white-footed mouse,
and red fox. Eastern teaberry is a favorite food of the eastern chipmunk, and
the leaves are a minor winter food of the gray squirrel in Virginia
[26,37].
PALATABILITY:
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE:
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE:
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES:
The leaves of eastern teaberry are used to make oil of eastern teaberry [27]
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Eastern teaberry is ordinarily plentiful in the woodlands of the Northeast,
and no special care is needed to perpetuate it. Seedlings or clones are
established by plantings beneath taller shrubs or in other partially
shaded sites. When plants have established, fruit production is
stimulated by thinning timber stands and removing overtopping vegetation
[32].
Eastern teaberry can be controlled by phenoxy herbicides [32].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Eastern teaberry is a spreading, evergreen, rhizomatous shrub which grows 4
to 8 inches (10-20 cm) tall [5,11,28]. Eastern teaberry creeps along the
ground, forming a dense carpet of shiny leaves that are 2 to 6 inches
(5-15 cm) long. The small flowers are less than 0.5 inches (1.2 cm)
long and are borne at the base of the leaves [27]. The fruit is
berrylike capsule with a large fleshy calyx [45]. The roots are 1 inch
(2.5 cm) or less in depth [14,31].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM:
Hemicryptophyte
Geophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Reproduction in eastern teaberry is both sexual and asexual. It typically
reproduces vegetatively from rhizomes. Vegetative growth is initiated
as additional branching on old stems, or as new stems on creeping
rhizomes [55]. The long, infrequently branching rhizomes distribute
ramets over large areas; it exploits gaps in litter for clonal
propagation [23,50]. Bird-disseminated seeds are probably the source of
new plants colonizing old fields [32,41].
In the oak-pine upland forest of the Pine Barrens of New Jersey,
eastern teaberry occurrence was positively correlated (p<0.05) with the
presence of litter and dead wood [50].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
As long as the soil is acidic, eastern teaberry grows well on many substrates
including peat, sand, sandy loam, and coal spoils. It has been found
growing where soil pH ranged from 3.5 to 6.9 on the surface to 4.0 to
6.9 below the surface. However, a pH of 4.5 to 6.0 has been reported as
optimum for growth, with 7.0 the maximum eastern teaberry tolerates.
Eastern teaberry mainly occurs on moist sites but tolerates moisture
conditions ranging from dry to poorly drained [2,32].
In jack pine communities in upper Michigan, eastern teaberry was present on
xeric, transitional, and mesic sites with frequencies of 11, 62, and 86
percent, respectively [3]. In Nova Scotia, eastern teaberry is found on the
tops of ridges and knolls in very shallow soil [58].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Eastern teaberry is shade tolerant. Fruiting, however, usually occurs in
openings [23,32,50]. It is a common understory species in the
Northeast [9]. In a Minnesota Norway pine (P. resinosa) forest,
eastern teaberry had greatest abundance of cover under intermediate light
intensities [56].
Eastern teaberry is found in the oldest vegetation in Grass River Bog, an
undrained sand plain in the Adirondacks [43].
Eastern teaberry is part of the understory vegetation in climax pine forests
of northern Minnesota [57].
In eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) climax forest in northeastern
Pennsylvania, eastern teaberry frequency ranged from 0 to 6 percent [47].
In the Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, eastern teaberry was present in
early and climax stages of forest succession [49]. Frequency in the
birch-poplar (Betula spp.-Populus spp.) stage was 58 percent; it was
"abundant" in the pine stage. Frequency was 36 percent in the
fir-spruce (Abies spp.-Picea spp.) stage. Eastern teaberry was not present
in the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) stage, but frequency was 14 percent
in eastern hemlock climax forest [49].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Eastern teaberry flowers from the end of May to September depending on
geographic location [10,37]. In Illinois, eastern teaberry flowers initiated
during June open in mid-July, with the fruit maturing in September [45].
In New Jersey and Penn Sylvia, the flowering period is from mid-July
through early August [55]. The leaves usually persist throughout the
winter [27,32]. The fruit may remain attached till the following spring
[45].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:
Eastern teaberry is not well-adapted to fire that removes litter and/or the
organic layer of soil. Rhizomes are restricted to the upper 0.8 to 1.2
inches (2-3 cm) of the organic layer, and eastern teaberry usually does not
survive if the organic layer is removed by fire [15]. The rhizomes are
especially vulnerable to severe fire [54]. If eastern teaberry survives, the
fire was probably of short duration or light enough that the fire
removed only aboveground vegetation and little litter [14].
Eastern teaberry rhizomes can tolerate brief exposure to high temperatures.
In one study its rhizomes were collected in spring, summer, and fall and
subjected to wet heat. Maximum shoot growth and number of stems
occurred after spring-collected rhizomes were placed in a water bath at
131 degrees Fahrenheit (55 deg C) for 5 minutes. Rhizomes died when
subjected to a 140 degrees Fahrenheit (60 deg C) bath for 5 minutes
[14].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY:
Rhizomatous low woody plant, rhizome in organic mantle
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE REGIMES:
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in
which this species may occur by entering the species name in the
FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:
Fire top-kills eastern teaberry [15]. Surviving rhizomes may sprout
[16,30,33,54].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
The response of eastern teaberry to fire and its role in fire related
succession seems to be highly variable.
In southwestern Nova Scotia, eastern teaberry survived a July fire. The
following summer density (stems/9 sq ft) and frequency (%) on covered
and uncovered quadrats were as follows [26]:
covered exposed
Density 0.3 0
Frequency 20 0
In southeast Manitoba, five plots were burned in April. No prefire data
were given. Results from the end of August showed the average frequency
of eastern teaberry was 54 percent and the average cover was 3.8 percent.
Different levels of shade (0-100 %) had little or no effect [46].
Percent frequency of eastern teaberry was monitored for 2 years after a fall
(September) prescribed fire on a jack pine clearcut in northern
Michigan. Little change occurred, at least in the first year. Results
are given [1]:
Unburned blocks Burned blocks
% frequency % frequency
1980 5.6 5.4
1981 4.6 0.8
Some research indicates that eastern teaberry is sensitive to fire. A spring
controlled fire was conducted on bracken fern (Pteridium
aquilinum)-grassland in Wisconsin. Sampling was done in July and August
of the year of the fire. The average frequency of eastern teaberry decreased
by 25.8 percent [38]. In the Pine Barrens of northern Wisconsin,
eastern teaberry average frequency decreased from 28 to 14 percent 1 year
after a spring fire [39]. In the New Jersey Pine Barrens, eastern teaberry
became less important with increasing fire frequencies. Fire
frequencies ranged from annual to 15-year intervals [44]. Eastern teaberry
in this area exploit fire-generated gaps in litter through clonal
propagation [50].
Other studies indicate that fire may favor eastern teaberry. In northwest
Minnesota, a severe May fire burned only the uppermost centimeters of
the forest floor. Eastern teaberry cover in unburned stands was 0 to 5
percent. After fire it was present in several associations and
increased through the sixth year following fire to a maximum cover of
6.2 percent. Biomass increased after fire, more in dry than moist
stands, but leveled off after the second year, perhaps because of the
low-bush growth form of eastern teaberry [51].
In a survey of the burned-over forest lands in southwestern Nova Scotia,
frequencies of eastern teaberry related to years since fire were as follows
[48]:
postfire yr % frequency
1 10.5
2 16.6
9 4.0
22 40
29 48.2
40 40
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
The following Research Project Summaries provide information on prescribed
fire use and postfire response of plant community species, including eastern teaberry,
that was not available when this species review was originally
written:
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
NO-ENTRY
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Gaultheria procumbens
REFERENCES:
1. Abrams, Marc D.; Dickmann, Donald I. 1984. Floristic composition before
and after prescribed fire on a jack pine clear-cut site in northern
lower Michigan. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 14: 746-749.
[7236]
2. Archambault, Louis; Barnes, Burton V.; Witter, John A. 1989. Ecological
species groups of oak ecosystems of southeastern Michigan. Forest
Science. 35(4): 1058-1074. [9768]
3. Beaufait, W. R.; Brown, R. T. 1962. Phytogeography of a representative
outwash plain jack pine site. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science,
Arts & Letters. 47: 201-209. [7239]
4. Braun, E. Lucy. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America.
Philadelphia, PA: Blakiston Books. [pages unknown]. [19812]
5. Braun, E. Lucy. 1961. The woody plants of Ohio. Columbus, OH: Ohio State
University Press. 362 p. [12914]
6. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
7. Cain, Stanley A. 1931. Ecological studies of the vegetation of the Great
Smoky Mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. Botanical Gazette. 91:
22-41. [10340]
8. Coffman, Michael S.; Alyanak, Edward; Resovsky, Richard. 1980. Field
guide habitat classification system: For Upper Peninsula of Michigan and
northeast Wisconsin. [Place of publication unknown]: Cooperative
Research on Forest Soils. 112 p. [8997]
9. Collins, Scott L.; Good, Ralph E. 1986. Canopy-ground layer
relationships of oak-pine forests in the New Jersey Pine Barrens.
American Midland Naturalist. 117(2): 280-288. [8636]
10. Dimock, Edward J., II; Johnston, William F.; Stein, William I. 1974.
Gaultheria L. wintergreen. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. Seeds of woody
plants in the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 422-426. [7671]
11. Duncan, Wilbur H.; Duncan, Marion B. 1987. The Smithsonian guide to
seaside plants of the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts from Louisiana to
Massachusetts, exclusive of lower peninsular Florida. Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press. 409 p. [12906]
12. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
13. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections
supplied by R. C. Rollins]. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 1632 p.
(Dudley, Theodore R., gen. ed.; Biosystematics, Floristic & Phylogeny
Series; vol. 2). [14935]
14. Flinn, Marguerite A.; Pringle, Joan K. 1983. Heat tolerance of rhizomes
of several understory species. Canadian Journal of Botany. 61: 452-457.
[8444]
15. Flinn, Marguerite A.; Wein, Ross W. 1977. Depth of underground plant
organs and theoretical survival during fire. Canadian Journal of Botany.
55: 2550-2554. [6362]
16. Flinn, Marguerite Adele. 1980. Heat penetration and early postfire
regeneration of some understory species in the Acadian forest. Halifax,
NB: University of New Brunswick. 87 p. Thesis. [9876]
17. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
18. Gleason, Henry A.; Cronquist, Arthur. 1991. Manual of vascular plants of
northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. New York: New
York Botanical Garden. 910 p. [20329]
19. Heimburger, Carl C. 1934. Forest-type studies in the Adirondack Region.
Memoir 165. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, Agricultural Experiment
Station. 122 p. [21495]
20. Kittredge, J., Jr. 1934. Evidence of the rate of forest succession on
Star Island, Minnesota. Ecology. 15(1): 24-35. [10102]
21. Kotar, John; Kovach, Joseph A.; Locey, Craig T. 1988. Field guide to
forest habitat types of northern Wisconsin. Madison, WI: University of
Wisconsin, Department of Forestry; Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources. 217 p. [11510]
22. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
23. Kudish, Michael. 1992. Adirondack upland flora: an ecological
perspective. Saranac, NY: The Chauncy Press. 320 p. [19376]
24. Kurmis, Vilis; Webb, Sara L.; Merriam, Lawrence C., Jr. 1986. Plant
communities of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota, U.S.A. Canadian
Journal of Botany. 64: 531-540. [16088]
25. Martin, Alexander C.; Zim, Herbert S.; Nelson, Arnold L. 1951. American
wildlife and plants. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 500 p.
[4021]
26. Martin, J. Lynton. 1955. Observations on the origin and early
development of a plant community following a forest fire. Forestry
Chronicle. 31: 154-161. [11363]
27. Pivorunas, David J. 1987. Gaultheria procumbens. American Nurseryman.
166(9): 218. [22716]
28. Radford, Albert E.; Ahles, Harry E.; Bell, C. Ritchie. 1968. Manual of
the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of
North Carolina Press. 1183 p. [7606]
29. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
30. Sidhu, S. S. 1973. Early effects of burning and logging in
pine-mixedwoods. II. Recovery in numbers of species and ground cover of
minor vegetation. Inf. Rep. PS-X-47. Chalk River, ON: Canadian Forestry
Service, Petawawa Forest Experiment Station. 23 p. [8227]
31. Sperka, Marie. 1973. Growing wildflowers: A gardener's guide. New York:
Harper & Row. 277 p. [10578]
32. Robinette, Sadie L. 1974. Checkerberry wintergreen (Gaultheria
procembens L. In: Gill, John D.; Healy, William M., compiler (also
revised). Shrubs and vinesfor northeastern wildlife. Gen. Tech. Rep.
NE-9. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 20-22. [10109]
33. Ross, S. Rachel. 1978. The effects of prescribed burning on ground cover
vegetation of white pine and mixed hardwood forests in southeastern New
Hampshire. Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire. 151 p. Thesis.
[20674]
34. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern
Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090]
35. Trimble, George R., Jr.; Patric, James H.; Gill, John D.; [and others].
1974. Some options for managing forest land in the central Appalachians.
Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-12. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 42 p. [13545]
36. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
37. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States,
their erosion-control and wildlife values. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240]
38. Vogl, R. J. 1964. The effects of fire on the vegetational composition of
bracken-grassland. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 53:
67-82. [9142]
39. Vogl, Richard J. 1971. Fire and the northern Wisconsin pine barrens. In:
Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers Fire ecology conference; 1970 August
20-21; New Brunsick, Canada. No. 10. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers
Research Station: 175-209. [2432]
40. Weber, M. G. 1991. Aspen management options using fire or cutting.
Information Report PI-X-100. Chalk River, ON: Forestry Canada, Petawawa
National Forestry Institute. 11 p. [17250]
41. White, Douglas W.; Stiles, Edmund W. 1992. Bird dispersal of fruits of
species introduced into eastern North America. Canadian Journal of
Botany. 70: 1689-1696. [19713]
42. Whittaker, R. H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains.
Ecological Monographs. 26(1): 1-79. [11108]
43. Bray, William L. 1920. The history of forest development on an undrained
sand plain in the Adirondacks. Syracuse, NY: New York State College of
Forestry. 47 p. [21340]
44. Buell, Murray F.; Cantlon, John E. 1953. Effects of prescribed burning
on ground cover in the New Jersey pine region. Ecology. 34: 520-528.
[9262]
45. Chou, Y. L. 1952. Floral morphology of three species of Gaultheria.
Botanical Gazette. 114: 198-221. [9500]
46. Hoefs, M. E. G.; Shay, Jennifer M. 1981. The effects of shade on shoot
growth of Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. after fire pruning in
southeastern Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Botany. 59: 166-174. [4977]
47. Hough, A. F. 1936. A climax forest community on East Tionesta Creek in
northwestern Pennsylvania. Ecology. 17(1): 9-28. [3460]
48. Martin, J. Lynton. 1956. An ecological survey of burned-over forest land
in southwestern Nova Scotia. Forestry Chronicle. 32: 313-336. [8932]
49. Martin, N. D. 1959. An anaylsis of forest succession in Algonquin Park,
Ontario. Ecological Monographs. 29(3): 187-218. [19930]
50. Matlack, G. R.; Good, R. E. 1989. Plant-scale pattern among herbs and
shrubs of a fire-dominated coastal plain forest. Vegetatio. 82: 95-103.
[9829]
51. Ohmann, Lewis F.; Grigal, David F. 1979. Early revegetation and nutrient
dynamics following the 1971 Little Sioux Forest Fire in northeastern
Minnesota. Forest Science Monograph 21. Bethesda, MD: The Society of
American Foresters. 80 p. [6992]
52. Crow, T. R.; Mroz, G. D.; Gale, M. R. 1991. Regrowth and nutrient
accumulations following whole-tree harvesting of a maple-oak forest.
Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 1305-1315. [16600]
53. MacLean, David A.; Wein, Ross W. 1977. Changes in understory vegetation
with increasing stand age in New Brunswick forests: species composition,
cover, biomass, and nutrients. Canadian Journal of Botany. 55:
2818-2831. [10106]
54. Matlack, G. R.; Gibson, D. J.; Good, R. E. 1993. Clonal propagation,
local disturbance, and the structure of vegetation: Ericaceous shrubs in
the Pine Barrens of New Jersey. Biological Conservation. 63: 1-8.
[20098]
55. Mirick, Sally; Quinn, James A. 1981. Some observations on the
reproductive biology of Gaultheria procumbens (Ericaceae). American
Journal of Botany. 68(10): 1298-1305. [10113]
56. Shirley, Hardy L. 1932. Light intensity in relation to plant growth in a
virgin Norway pine forest. Journal of Agricultural Research. 44:
227-244. [10360]
57. Stallard, Harvey. 1929. Secondary succession in the climax forest
formations of northern Minnesota. Ecology. 10(4): 476-547. [3808]
58. Strang, R. M. 1971. The ecology of the rocky heathlands of western Nova
Scotia. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference;
1970 August 20-21; Fredericton, NB. No. 10. Tallahassee, FL: Tall
Timbers Research Station: 287-292. [5466]
59. Weatherbee, Pamela B.; Crow, Garrett E. 1992. Natural plant communities
of Berkshire County, Massachusetts. Rhodora. 94(878): 171-209. [19726]
60. Wilm, H. G. 1936. The relation of successional development to the
silviculture of forest burn communities in southern New York. Ecology.
17(2): 283-291. [3483]
61. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. PLANTS Database, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (Producer).
Available: https://plants.usda.gov/ [34262]
FEIS Home Page
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/gaupro/all.html
