Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
Introductory
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Matthews, Robin F. 1994. Chimaphila umbellata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/chiumb/all.html [].
Revisions : On 15 December 2014, the common name of this species was changed
from: prince's-pine
to: pipsissewa.
ABBREVIATION :
CHIUMB
SYNONYMS :
Pyrola umbellata L. [41,82]
SCS PLANT CODE :
CHUM
COMMON NAMES :
pipsissewa
prince's-pine
prince's pine
waxflower
wintergreen
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of pipsissewa is Chimaphila
umbellata (L.) Barton [17,39,57,81,82]. Pipsissewa comprises a
circumboreal complex in which several geographical varieties have been
recognized [70]. The following varieties and subspecies are accepted:
Chimaphila umbellata var. umbellata (Eurasia) [70]
Chimaphila umbellata var. occidentalis (Rydb.) Blake (western North America)
[17,38,39,57,82]
Chimaphila umbellata var. cisatlantica Blake (eastern North America)
[17,24,63,70]
Chimaphila umbellata var. acuta (Rydb.) Blake (Arizona and New Mexico) [35,44]
Chimaphila umbellata subsp. domingensis (S.F. Blake) Dorr (Dominican Republic) [84]
Chimaphila umbellata subsp. mexicana (DC.) Hulten (Mexico) [41]
LIFE FORM :
Shrub, Forb
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
See OTHER STATUS
OTHER STATUS :
Chimaphila umbellata var. cisatlantica is listed as threatened in Ohio
by the Natural Heritage Program [85]. Chimaphila species are considered
vulnerable in New York and may become rare, threatened, or endangered in
the future if collection and/or development continues. They are
protected under the 1974 New York State Wildflower Law [50].
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Pipsissewa is a circumboreal species that is widely distributed in
the northern hemisphere. It is found from Newfoundland to Alaska south
to California and Mexico, and east to New Mexico, Colorado, and South
Dakota. It is also found in the eastern United States from Maine south
in the mountains to Georgia and west to Minnesota [25,44,63,67,81,82].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
STATES :
AK AZ CA CO CT DE GA ID IL IN
IA KY ME MD MA MI MN MT NV NH
NJ NM NY NC OH OR PA RI SC SD
TN UT VT VA WA WV WI WY AB BC
MB NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ SK YT
MEXICO
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K006 Redwood forest
K007 Red fir forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K097 Southeastern spruce - fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
14 Northern pin oak
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
17 Pin cherry
18 Paper birch
19 Gray birch - red maple
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
31 Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
34 Red spruce - Fraser fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white-cedar
38 Tamarack
42 Bur oak
45 Pitch pine
51 White pine - chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
58 Yellow-poplar - eastern hemlock
59 Yellow-poplar - white oak - northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
63 Cottonwood
107 White spruce
108 Red maple
110 Black oak
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
203 Balsam poplar
204 Black spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
207 Red fir
208 Whitebark pine
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
222 Black cottonwood - willow
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
231 Port-Orford-cedar
232 Redwood
233 Oregon white oak
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
235 Cottonwood - willow
236 Bur oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California black oak
249 Canyon live oak
251 White spruce - aspen
252 Paper birch
253 Black spruce - white spruce
254 Black spruce - paper birch
256 California mixed subalpine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Pipsissewa is a common understory species in many habitat types
throughout its range but often does not reach dominance. It is found in
coniferous and mixed forests with numerous tree species. In addition to
those already mentioned, pipsissewa may occur with sugar pine (Pinus
lambertiana), giant sequoia (Sequoia gigantea), and Brewer spruce (Picea
breweriana) [6,65,79]. Several publications that list pipsissewa as
a dominant understory species in the western United States follow.
Description and classification of the forests of the upper Illinois
River drainage of southwestern Oregon [6]
Preliminary plant associations of the Siskiyou Mountain Province [8]
Preliminary plant associations of the southern Oregon Cascade Mountain
Province [7]
Terrestrial vegetation of California [66]
Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington [21]
Plant association and management guide: Willamette National Forest [37]
Plant associations of south Chiloquin and Klamath Ranger
Districts--Winema National Forest [40]
Vegetation and fire history of a ponderosa pine-white fir forest in
Crater Lake National Park [53]
Associated species are well described for the Northwest and include
baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), Nootka rose (R. nutkana), Greene
mountain-ash (Sorbus scopulina), common snowberry (Symphoricarpos
albus), Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), Pacific yew
(Taxus brevifolia), huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), russet buffaloberry
(Shepherdia canadensis), spiraea (Spiraea spp.), menziesia (Menziesia
ferruginea), creeping juniper (Juniperus horizontalis), common juniper
(J. communis), pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites), snowbrush ceanothus
(Ceanothus velutinus), Utah honeysuckle (Lonicera utahensis), currant
(Ribes spp.), raspberry (Rubus spp.), twinflower (Linnaea borealis),
bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax),
Oregon-grape (Mahonia repens), queencup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora),
violet (Viola spp.), strawberry (Fragaria spp.), sweet-scented bedstraw
(Galium trifolium), pyrola (Pyrola spp.), oneleaf foamflower (Tiarella
unifoliata), western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia),
pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), and elk sedge (Carex geyeri)
[1,7,14,28,37].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Pipsissewa is of minor importance in winter, spring, and fall diets
of Roosevelt elk in the Pacific Northwest [43]. It is a component
of white-tailed deer winter diets in the Swan Valley, Montana [56].
Mature stands of white fir (Abies concolor)-giant chinquapin
(Chrysolepsis chrysophylla)/pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites)-prince's
pine and Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis)-white
fir-giant chinquapin/pipsissewa-long stolon sedge (Carex inops) plant
associations in the Winema National Forest are critical elk calving and
deer fawning habitat. They are also important for feeding and nesting
sites for birds and are suitable habitats for spotted owls, goshawks,
and pileated woodpeckers [40]. White fir-Brewer spruce/pipsissewa
plant associations in the southern Oregon Cascade Mountain Province are
also excellent wildlife habitat [8].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Pipsissewa is sensitive to trampling and has a low potential for
recovery. It may, however, recover from very low (less than 40 passes
per year) or low (75-100 passes per year) trampling intensities [13].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Historically, pipsissewa roots and leaves were boiled and the
infusion was ingested as a treatment for tuberculosis and long-lasting
colds. The leaves were also used as an astringent. Pipsissewa can
also be used as an ingredient in root beer [34,40].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
In a study of lodgepole pine stands in spruce (Picea engelmannii and P.
glauca)/queencup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora) habitat types in Glacier
National Park, pipsissewa displayed a significant (p<.10) decrease in
frequency in response to a mountain pine beetle infestation and was more
numerous on sites never infested than sites infested 80 years earlier.
It was negatively correlated to overstory removal and increased light
intensity, as shown by a steady decline in cover and frequency following
the epidemic [3].
Pipsissewa is a major constituent of old-growth forests in the Swan
Valley, Montana. It often persists only on sheltered, unburned
microsites. It is present (39% frequency) in untreated old-growth and
mature stands but is absent from burned clearcuts and plantation sites
(20-30 years old). Where standing trees remain to provide cover,
frequency may be as high as 67 percent in stands that have been select
cut without burning [22]. At other locations pipsissewa has
essentially disappeared from stands or has had a major decrease in
frequency or cover following stand removal with or without subsequent
burning [4,5,14,74].
In the Vancouver Forest Region of British Columbia, pipsissewa is an
indicator species in several variants of biogeoclimatic units for which
guidelines for site diagnosis, tree species selection, and slash burning
have been developed [26]. It is used as an indicator of good forest
sites in the Winema and Fremont National Forests, Oregon. When
associated with twinflower, it is an indicator of the best fir (Abies
spp.) sites [32,40]. The presence of pipsissewa is used to predict
natural regeneration success under partially cut stands on the Dead
Indian Plateau in southwest Oregon [55].
Pipsissewa is not a serious competitor to conifer seedlings [7].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Pipsissewa is a native evergreen low shrub or perennial rhizomatous
herb. The woody stems are usually 4 to 12 inches (10-30 cm) tall and
the leathery, whorled leaves are sharply serrate. The fertile stems are
generally erect and may have 2 to 15 flowers. Fruits are depressed,
globose capsules which often persist through the winter
[25,39,57,70,72,82].
Across its range, pipsissea was show wide variation in size; in leaf
blade length, number of teeth, and prominence of lower surface venation;
in sepal shape; and in stigma and capsule size [31].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Chamaephyte
Geophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Pipsissewa reproduces both sexually and vegetatively. Flowers have
been observed being pollinated by bumblebees and staphylinid beetles
[11]. Pipsissewa develops numerous, minute seeds [25,57,72]. Their
dispersal mechanism has not been documented. A New Brunswick study of
boreal herb reproductive biology found that pipsissewa flowered for
an average of 30 days. Fruit set was low for flowers opening at the
beginning of the flowering period. Eighty-three percent of buds opened
and 76.5 percent survived the flowering period. Forty-seven percent of
flower buds eventually developed fruit, and 45.6 percent actually
matured fruit [36].
Pipsissewa produces long rhizomes that normally grow at a fast rate.
Genets are generally long-lived [83]. Reports differ concerning the
depth of pipsissewa rhizomes. In a study of the Douglas-fir forest
zone in southern interior British Columbia, McLean [52] listed prince's
pine with species that have rhizomes growing from 2 to 5 inches (5-13
cm) below the mineral soil surface. Most of those species are able to
regenerate from those depths, but he stated that only pipsissewa
rhizomes near the soil surface are able to produce new shoots. Stickney
[78] reported that in the northern Rocky Mountains, pipsissewa
rhizomes are confined to the duff near or above the mineral soil
surface.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Pipsissewa is found in a wide variety of soils and soil moisture
regimes. It most commonly occurs in mixed woods and coniferous forests
[17,24,35,38,44] on dry, well-drained, rocky or sandy soils
[7,18,24,26]. In coastal regions of British Columbia, pipsissewa is
an indicator of dry to very dry, nutrient-poor soils in montane boreal,
temperate, and cool mesothermal climates. Its occurrence decreases with
increasing elevation and precipitation, and increases with
continentality [47]. In Ontario, pipsissewa most often occurs on
sandy or rocky soil on well-drained sites, on gravel terraces, and in
jack pine (Pinus banksiana) barrens [70]. In red pine (P.
resinosa)-white pine (P. strobus) forests of Voyageurs National Park,
Minnesota, pipsissewa is found on dry, shallow, well-drained,
nutrient poor to medium loamy sand to sandy loam soils [51]. In the
nearby Boundary Waters Canoe area, pipsissewa is found on shallow,
sandy soils to deep soils with a high clay content [59].
Pipsissewa also occurs in moist or imperfectly-drained situations
throughout its range. It is found on moist sites in oak ecosystems of
Michigan [2], on moist sites in the Black Hills of South Dakota [72],
and in lodgepole pine (P. contorta) forests in Alberta [9]. In the
Adirondack Mountains of New York, pipsissewa occurs on well- to
imperfectly-drained sites, most often under pines (Pinus spp.) on
outwash soils, but also on tills in mixed woods [50].
Pipsissewa occurs in the following elevational ranges:
feet meters
_________________________________________________
UT 6,930-9,570 2,100-2,900 [82]
AZ 6,000-9,570 1,800-2,900 [31]
CA 1,000-9,570 300-2,900 [38,57]
CO 8,000-11,500 2,400-3,500 [35]
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Pipsissewa has been classified as moderately shade tolerant to
tolerant throughout its range [26,29,42,47,50,60]. Its highest
frequency or cover is probably reached at intermediate light levels,
such as in relatively open conifer stands in the Siskiyou Mountains of
Oregon [15].
In the western Cascades, pipsissewa is significantly more frequent
(p<.05) under a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) canopy than under a
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) canopy (71% vs. 4% frequency).
Average cover under western hemlock is less than 1.0 percent compared to
12.5 percent under Douglas-fir. The difference may be due to less
direct radiation in the western hemlock stands [73].
Pipsissewa is present throughout succession and occurs in stands of
all ages [28,29,59,64,71]. It is found in relatively young stands
[1,20,45], but is probably more frequent in mid-successional stages and
mature forests [3,5,21,29]. Pipsissewa is a common understory
component in many old-growth and climax forests of the Pacific Northwest
[20,27,30,42].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Pipsissewa flowers from June to August throughout its range
[17,24,25,31,57].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Pipsissewa is a fire-sensitive species that is very susceptible to
damage and often shows a strong decline following fire [33,52,71,78].
Survival probably depends to a great extent on damage to rhizomes, so it
depends on depth of rhizomes, fire severity, and consumption of duff
[68,78]. Loss of the long-lived evergreen leaves may also reduce
survival. Postfire vegetative recovery depends primarily on the
survival of scattered individuals in undisturbed microsites [33].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Rhizomatous low woody plant, rhizome in organic mantle
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Pipsissewa has a moderate to high probability of being killed by fire
[40,76]. Low-severity fires that do not consume the organic mantle may
only top-kill it.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Postfire response of pipsissewa is variable and is probably most
dependent on fire severity and the uniformity of the burn. Some studies
have reported pipsissewa surviving fire. In mixed western
hemlock-Douglas-fir-western redcedar (Thuja plicata) stands in North
Cascades National Park, Washington, pipsissewa was considered a
residual species following a July wildfire. Its frequency in postfire
years 1, 2, and 3 was 65.3, 52.1, and 52.1 percent, respectively [54].
Pipsissewa appeared to survive on moderately burned sites following
the Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park in July, 1974,
but was eliminated from severely burned sites. The prefire vegetation
was spruce-fir with lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and whitebark pine
(P. albicaulis). Pipsissewa had the following percent frequency and
cover as measured in 1975 [10]:
Frequency Cover
______________________________________________
Unburned sites 52 5
Sites burned in 1932 2 trace
Moderately burned sites 17 1
Severely burned sites 0 0
In the northern Rocky Mountains, slow recovery after fire has been
reported. Pipsissewa was eliminated from initial postfire
communities by a severe wildfire in western larch (Larix
occidentalis)-Douglas-fir stands on the Flathead National Forest,
Montana [75]. In western larch-fir (Abies grandis and A. lasiocarpa)
stands on the Flathead and Lolo National Forests, Montana, pipsissewa
had not recovered by postfire year 9 following logging and broadcast
burning [74]. Pipsissewa was also absent 10 months after a
late-summer wildfire in lodgepole pine stands in the Chamberlain Basin,
Idaho. It was found on adjacent unburned sites and was present on
burned sites 5 years after the fire, but had less biomass production
than on unburned sites [61].
Variable responses to fire have been reported for pipsissewa in
Minnesota. It survived the Little Sioux Wildfire in May, 1971, in mixed
conifer-hardwood stands in northeastern Minnesota. Number of
individuals (on seventy 0.605 sq m plots) and aboveground average dry
weight per individual pipsissewa were measured at the end of each
growing season for the first 5 postfire years [58]:
1971 1972 1973 1974 1975
________________________________________________________________
No. of individuals 15 no data 57 30 7
Ave. dry wt. (g) .07 no data .33 .29 .46
Pipsissewa responded more slowly after wildfires in second-growth
mixed conifer-hardwood forests in northeastern Minnesota. It was not
present in postfire years 3, 5, or 14 after the April Heartlake Fire.
It was not present on the Kelley Creek Burn, resulting from a July fire,
at postfire year 2 but had a frequency of 3 percent in postfire years 5
and 11 [48].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
The Research Project Summary Vegetation response to restoration treatments
in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests of western Montana provides
information on prescribed fire and postfire response of plant community
species, including pipsissewa, that was not available when this species
review was written.
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Pipsissewa is a component in many subzones in which guidelines for
prescribed burning and tree species selection have been developed in the
Vancouver Forest District, British Columbia [46].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Chimaphila umbellata
REFERENCES :
1. Antos, J. A.; Habeck, J. R. 1981. Successional development in Abies
grandis (Dougl.) Forbes forests in the Swan Valley, western Montana.
Northwest Science. 55(1): 26-39. [12445]
2. Archambault, Louis; Barnes, Burton V.; Witter, John A. 1989. Ecological
species groups of oak ecosystems of southeastern Michigan. Forest
Science. 35(4): 1058-1074. [9768]
3. Armour, Charles David. 1982. Fuel and vegetation succession in response
to mountain pine beetle epidemics in northwestern Montana. Moscow, ID:
University of Idaho. 47 p. Thesis. [16488]
4. Arno, Stephen F.; Simmerman, Dennis G. 1982. Succession after cutting
and fire treatments on forest habitat types in western Montana. In:
Baumgartner, David M., compiler. Site preparation and fuels management
on steep terrain: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February 15-17;
Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative
Extension: 113-117. [18537]
5. Arno, Stephen F.; Simmerman, Dennis G.; Keane, Robert E. 1985. Forest
succession on four habitat types in western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-177. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 74 p. [349]
6. Atzet, Thomas. 1979. Description and classification of the forests of
the upper Illinois River drainage of southwestern Oregon. Corvallis, OR:
Oregon State University. 211 p. Dissertation. [6452]
7. Atzet, Thomas; McCrimmon, Lisa A. 1990. Preliminary plant associations
of the southern Oregon Cascade Mountain Province. Grants Pass, OR: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Siskiyou National Forest. 330
p. [12977]
8. Atzet, Thomas; Wheeler, David L. 1984. Preliminary plant associations of
the Siskiyou Mountain Province. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 278 p. [9351]
9. Baranyay, J. A.; Safranyik, L. 1970. Effect of dwarf mistletoe on growth
and mortality of lodgepole pine in Alberta. Publ. No. 1285. Ottawa:
Canadian Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 19 p.
[8286]
10. Barmore, William J., Jr.; Taylor, Dale; Hayden, Peter. 1976. Ecological
effects and biotic succession following the 1974 Waterfalls Canyon Fire
in Grand Teton National Park. Research Progress Report 1974-1975.
Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 99 p.
[16109]
11. Barrett, Spencer C.; Helenurm, Kaius. 1987. The reproductive biology of
boreal forest herbs. I. Breeding systems and pollination. Canadian
Journal of Botany. 65: 2036-2046. [6624]
12. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
13. Cole, David N. 1988. Disturbance and recovery of trampled montane
grassland and forests in Montana. Res. Pap. INT-389. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research
Station. 37 p. [3622]
14. Edgerton, Paul J. 1987. Influence of ungulates on the development of the
shrub understory of an upper slope mixed conifer forest. In: Provenza,
Frederick D.; Flinders, Jerran T.; McArthur, E. Durant, compilers.
Proceedings--symposium on plant-herbivore interactions; 1985 August 7-9;
Snowbird, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-222. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 162-167.
[7411]
15. Emmingham, W. H. 1972. Conifer growth and plant distribution under
different light environments in the Siskiyou Mountains of southwestern
Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 50 p. Thesis. [9651]
16. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
17. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections
supplied by R. C. Rollins]. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 1632 p.
(Dudley, Theodore R., gen. ed.; Biosystematics, Floristic & Phylogeny
Series; vol. 2). [14935]
18. Filip, Stanley M.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1971. Trees and shrubs of the
Bartlett Experimental Forest, Carroll County, New Hampshire. Res. Pap.
NE-211. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 20 p. [13635]
19. Fischer, William C.; Bradley, Anne F. 1987. Fire ecology of western
Montana forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-223. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research
Station. 95 p. [633]
20. Fonda, R. W. 1979. Fire resilient forests of Douglas-fir in Olympic
National Park: a hypothesis. In: Linn, Robert M., ed. Proceedings, 1st
conference on scientific research in the National Parks, Vol. 2; 1976
November 9-12; New Orleans, LA. NPS Transactions and Proceedings No. 5.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service:
1239-1242. [6698]
21. Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon
and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 417 p. [961]
22. Freedman, June D. 1983. The historical relationship between fire and
plant succession within the Swan Valley white-tailed deer winter range,
western Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 139 p.
Dissertation. [6486]
23. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
24. Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. 1963. Manual of vascular plants of
northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. Princeton, NJ: D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc. 810 p. [7065]
25. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains.
Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
26. Green, R. N.; Courtin, P. J.; Klinka, K.; [and others]. 1984. Site
diagnosis, tree species selection, and slashburning guidelines for the
Vancouver Forest Region. Land Management Handbook Number 8. Abridged
version. Burnaby, BC: Ministry of Forests, Vancouver Forest Region. 143
p. [9475]
27. Grier, Charles C.; Logan, Robert S. 1977. Old-growth Pseudotsuga
menziesii communties of a western Oregon watershed: biomass distribution
and production budgets. Ecological Monographs. 47: 373-400. [8762]
28. Habeck, James R. 1968. Forest succession in the Glacier Park
cedar-hemlock forests. Ecology. 49(5): 872-880. [6479]
29. Habeck, James R. 1970. Fire ecology investigations in Glacier National
Park: Historical considerations and current observations. Missoula, MT:
University of Montana, Department of Botany. 80 p. [6712]
30. Habeck, James R. 1978. A study of climax western redcedar (Thuja plicata
Donn.) forest communities in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, Idaho.
Northwest Science. 52(1): 67-76. [7354]
31. Haber, Erich. 1992. Pyrolaceae: Wintergreen family. In: A new flora for
Arizona in preparation. In: Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of
Science. 26(1): 22-28. [21484]
32. Hall, Frederick C. 1973. Plant communities of the Blue Mountains in
eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. R6-Area Guide 3-1. Portland,
OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Region. 82 p. [1059]
33. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species:
interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3):
704-720. [6829]
34. Halverson, Nancy M., compiler. 1986. Major indicator shrubs and herbs on
National Forests of western Oregon and southwestern Washington.
R6-TM-229. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Region. 180 p. [3233]
35. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2d ed.
Chicago: The Swallow Press Inc. 666 p. [6851]
36. Helenurm, Kaius; Barrett, Spencer C. H. 1987. The reproductive biology
of boreal forest herbs. II. Phenology of flowering and fruiting.
Canadian Journal of Botany. 65: 2047-2056. [6623]
37. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Logan, Sheila E.; Pavlat, Warren. 1987. Plant
association and management guide: Willamette National Forest. R6-Ecol
257-B-86. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Region. 312 p. [13402]
38. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of
California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p.
[21992]
39. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific
Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
40. Hopkins, William E. 1979. Plant associations of south Chiloquin and
Klamath Ranger Districts-- Winema National Forest. R6-Ecol-79-005.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Region. 96 p. [7339]
41. Hulten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403]
42. Ingram, Douglas C. 1931. Vegetative changes and grazing use on
Douglas-fir cut-over land. Journal of Agricultural Research. 43(5):
387-417. [8877]
43. Jenkins, Kurt J.; Starkey, Edward E. 1991. Food habits of Roosevelt elk.
Rangelands. 13(6): 261-265. [17351]
44. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock,
Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
45. Kittredge, J., Jr. 1934. Evidence of the rate of forest succession on
Star Island, Minnesota. Ecology. 15(1): 24-35. [10102]
46. Klinka, K. 1977. Guide for the tree species selection and prescribed
burning in the Vancouver Forest District: Second approximation.
Vancouver, BC: Ministry of Forests, Forest Service Research Division,
VancouverForest District. 56 p. [16924]
47. Klinka, K.; Krajina, V. J.; Ceska, A.; Scagel, A. M. 1989. Indicator
plants of coastal British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British
Columbia Press. 288 p. [10703]
48. Krefting, Laurits W.; Ahlgren, Clifford E. 1974. Small mammals and
vegetation changes after fire in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest.
Ecology. 55: 1391-1398. [9874]
49. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
50. Kudish, Michael. 1992. Adirondack upland flora: an ecological
perspective. Saranac, NY: The Chauncy Press. 320 p. [19377]
51. Kurmis, Vilis; Webb, Sara L.; Merriam, Lawrence C., Jr. 1986. Plant
communities of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota, U.S.A. Canadian
Journal of Botany. 64: 531-540. [16088]
52. McLean, Alastair. 1968. Fire resistance of forest species as influenced
by root systems. Journal of Range Management. 22: 120-122. [1621]
53. McNeil, Robert C.; Zobel, Donald B. 1980. Vegetation and fire history of
a ponderosa pine-white fir forest in Crater Lake National Park.
Northwest Science. 54(1): 30-46. [166]
54. Miller, Margaret M.; Miller, Joseph W. 1976. Succession after wildfire
in the North Cascades National Park complex. In: Proceedings, annual
Tall Timbers fire ecology conference: Pacific Northwest; 1974 October
16-17; Portland, OR. No. 15. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research
Station: 71-83. [6574]
55. Minore, Don; Carkin, Richard E. 1978. Vegetative indicators, soils,
overstory canopy, and natural regeneration after partial cutting on the
Dead Indian Plateau of southwestern Oregon. PNW-316. Portland, OR: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 9 p. [8218]
56. Mundinger, John D. 1978. Population ecology and habitat relationships of
white-tailed deer in coniferous forest habitat of northwestern Montana.
Montana deer studies: Job progress report 1977-1978. Helena, MT: Montana
Department of Fish and Game. 74 p. [21525]
57. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
58. Ohmann, Lewis F.; Grigal, David F. 1966. Some individual plant biomass
values from northeastern Minnesota. NC-227. St. Paul, MN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest
Experiment Station. 2 p. [8151]
59. Ohmann, Lewis F.; Ream, Robert R. 1971. Wilderness ecology: virgin plant
communities of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. Res. Pap. NC-63. St.
Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central
Forest Experiment Station. 55 p. [9271]
60. Pase, Charles P.; Brown, David E. 1982. Rocky Mountain (Petran) and
Madrean montane conifer forests. In: Brown, David E., ed. Biotic
communities of the American Southwest--United States and Mexico. Desert
Plants. 4(1-4): 43-48. [8885]
61. Phillips, T. A. 1973. The effects of fire on vegetation and wildlife on
a lodgepole pine burn in Chamberlain Basin, Idaho. Range Improvement
Notes. 18(1): 1-9. [16548]
62. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
63. Roland, A. E.; Smith, E. C. 1969. The flora of Nova Scotia. Halifax, NS:
Nova Scotia Museum. 746 p. [13158]
64. Ruggiero, Leonard F.; Jones, Lawrence L. C.; Aubry, Keith B. 1991. Plant
and animal habitat associations in Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific
Northwest: an overview. In: Ruggiero, Leonard F.; Aubry, Keith B.;
Carey, Andrew B.; Huff, Mark H., technical coordinators. Wildlife and
vegetation of unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-GTR-285. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 447-462. [17334]
65. Rundel, Philip W. 1971. Community structure and stability in the giant
sequoia groves of the Sierra Nevada, California. American Midland
Naturalist. 85(2): 478-492. [10504]
66. Sawyer, John O.; Thornburgh, Dale A.; Griffin, James R. 1977. Mixed
evergreen forest. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial
vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 359-381.
[7218]
67. Seymour, Frank Conkling. 1982. The flora of New England. 2d ed.
Phytologia Memoirs 5. Plainfield, NJ: Harold N. Moldenke and Alma L.
Moldenke. 611 p. [7604]
68. Shearer, Raymond C.; Stickney, Peter F. 1991. Natural revegetation of
burned and unburned clearcuts in western larch forests of northwest
Montana. In: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. Fire and the
environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: Proceedings of an
international symposium; 1990 March 20-24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech.
Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 66-74. [16635]
69. Shirley, Hardy L. 1932. Light intensity in relation to plant growth in a
virgin Norway pine forest. Journal of Agricultural Research. 44:
227-244. [10360]
70. Soper, James H.; Heimburger, Margaret L. 1982. Shrubs of Ontario. Life
Sciences Misc. Publ. Toronto, ON: Royal Ontario Museum. 495 p. [12907]
71. Spies, Thomas A. 1991. Plant species diversity and occurrence in young,
mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir stands in western Oregon and
Washington. In: Ruggiero, Leonard F.; Aubry, Keith B.; Carey, Andrew B.;
Huff, Mark H., technical coordinators. Wildlife and vegetation of
unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-285. Portland,
OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Research Station: 111-121. [17309]
72. Stephens, H. A. 1973. Woody plants of the North Central Plains.
Lawrence, KS: The University Press of Kansas. 530 p. [3804]
73. Stewart, G. H. 1988. The influence of canopy cover on understory
development in forests of the western Cascade Range, Oregon, USA.
Vegetatio. 76: 79-88. [6631]
74. Stickney, Peter F. 1980. Data base for post-fire succession, first 6 to
9 years, in Montana larch-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-62. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 133 p. [6583]
75. Stickney, Peter F. 1982. Initial stages of a natural forest succession
following wildfire in the northern Rocky Mountains, a case study.
Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory,
Missoula, MT. 2 p. [20956]
76. Stickney, Peter F. 1986. First decade plant succession following the
Sundance Forest Fire, northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-197. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station. 26 p. [2255]
77. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern
Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090]
78. Stickney, Peter F. 1991. Effects of fire on flora: Northern Rocky
Mountain forest plants. Unpublished paper on file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental
Station, Missoula, MT: 10 p. [21628]
79. Thornburgh, Dale. 1990. Picea breweriana Wats. Brewer spruce. In:
Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics
of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 181-186. [13383]
80. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
81. Viereck, Leslie A.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and
shrubs. Agric. Handb. 410. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 265 p. [6884]
82. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry
C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo,
UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
83. Zobel, Donald B.; Antos, Joseph A. 1987. Composition of rhizomes of
forest herbaceous plants in relation to morphology, ecology, and burial
by tephra. Botanical Gazette. 148(4): 490-500. [3882]
84. Dorr, Laurence J. 1986. A new combination in Chimaphila (Ericaceae).
Sida. 11(4): 370. [22264]
85. McCance, R. M., Jr.; Burns, J. F., eds. 1984. Ohio endangered and
threatened vascular plants: Abstracts of state-listed taxa. Columbus,
OH: Department of Natural Resources, Division of Natural Areas and
Preserves. 635 p. [22520]
FEIS Home Page
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/chiumb/all.html
