FEIS Home Page |
photo courtesy of Plants Database [122] |
Experiments have been conducted crossing basin wildrye with
Altai wildrye (L. angustus)
[36]. Basin wildrye forms natural hybrids with Salina wildrye (L. salinus)
[132], beardless wildrye (L. triticoides) [66,132], and bottlebrush
squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) [132].
LIFE FORM:
Graminoid
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
No special status
OTHER STATUS:
No entry
AZ | CA | CO | ID | MN |
MT | NV | NM | OR | SD |
UT | WA | WY | ||
AB | BC | SK |
Tree and shrub codominants occurring with basin wildrye include singleleaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla), Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma), green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), longflower snowberry (Symphoricarpos longiflorus), black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), basin big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata), mountain big sagebrush (A. tridentata ssp. vaseyana), Wyoming big sagebrush (A. tridentata ssp. wyomingensis), and low sagebrush (A. arbuscula) [21,22,70,70,91,93,120,133].
Grass codominants occurring with basin wildrye include saltgrass (Distichlis stricta), cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), California brome (Bromus carinatus), and Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) [21,34,70,91].
Classifications describing plant communities in which basin wildrye is a dominant species are as follows:
Idaho [70]Basin wildrye has high photosynthetic capacity and high nitrogen-use efficiency [5].
Basin wildrye has an extensive soil-binding, fibrous root system [129]. Abbott and others [1] found that basin wildrye tends to root deeper in undisturbed soil (rooting depth of 39 inches or 100 cm) than in disturbed soil (rooting depth of 30 inches or 75 cm). Reynolds and Fraley [103], however, found that basin wildrye rooted to 79 inches (200 cm) in disturbed soils and to 63 inches (160 cm) in undisturbed soils. Basin wildrye reaches maximum lateral root spread of 39 inches (100 cm) [1,103] at approximately 16 inches (40 cm) deep [103].
The Manual of the Grasses of the United States [67] provides a morphological description and identification key for basin wildrye.
RAUNKIAER [101] LIFE FORM:Breeding system: No information
Seed production: Basin wildrye is attacked by a variety of insects, potentially reducing both forage and seed production [139]. In particular, the wheat stem sawfly reduces seed weight and production but not germination rates [138].
Seed dispersal: No information
Seed banking: No information
Germination: Basin wildrye is primarily spring emerging, even though seed is nondormant at dispersal (July-August). Chilling rather than dry afterripening readies seeds for rapid emergence, effectively limiting emergence to spring [88]. Basin wildrye seeds germinate more quickly after a 2-week chilling treatment (mean germination time of 2-11 days) than with no treatment (mean germination time of 6-16 days). Its failure to germinate quickly as a consequence of time in dry storage protects basin wildrye from fall emergence, though it is quick to emerge in early spring [88]. Seed viability ranges from 5 to 60%, with most seed lots falling in the 30 to 40% range [134]. Though basin wildrye is tolerant of arid soils, low soil water potential may decrease seed hydration and germination rates [110,136]. The 'Magnar' cultivar germinates at lower water potential than most wild basin wildrye types [110].
Big sagebrush may inhibit germination of basin wildrye through allelopathic effects. Laboratory aerial exposure of basin wildrye seeds to uncrushed big sagebrush leaves and aqueous extracts from big sagebrush leaves decreased germination rates. Exposure to crushed big sagebrush leaves decreased germination rates, radicle length, and shoot height of basin wildrye [54].
Seedling establishment/growth: Basin wildrye seedlings demonstrate fair vigor [129] and are generally slow to develop and establish [16,69]. Stands of basin wildrye may establish by the 2nd or 3rd growing season [129]. Seedling establishment of basin wildrye may be reduced by a combination of saline soils and hard soil crusts. According to laboratory experiments evaluating osmotic potential and 0.12-inch- (3 mm) thick soft, medium, and hard wax crusts, increased salinity reduces basin wildrye seedling vigor and inhibits seedling ability to penetrate soil crusts [46]. Plants growing on saline, alkaline soils produce seeds ill adapted for growth in that type of environment. Field studies in Nevada found that seedling emergence and growth on saline, alkaline soils were better with seeds collected from plants growing on nonalkaline soils than from those growing on saline, alkaline soils [136].
Basin wildrye seedlings may be sensitive to boron, which is found on many arid, saline soils. Basin wildrye seeded on soils high in soluble salts, exchangeable sodium, and boron may be unsuccessful unless irrigated. Without irrigation, a study in Nevada found 70-80% germination with no seedling survival [118]. Excessive boron concentrations (22 and 37 ppm) reduce 'Magnar' cultivar seedling growth and survival, though not seedling emergence [109]. 'Magnar' cultivars grown in moderately saline soil require frequent moisture from April through June to produce an "acceptable" (>2 seedlings/m of row) stand of seedlings. More seedlings established on nonsaline plots [108]. Irrigation may increase seedling survival by lowering water stress and by diluting and leaching salts from the soil [118].
Asexual regeneration: Basin wildrye reproduces from tillers and short rhizomes [17,32,66,82,92]. Vegetative reproduction of basin wildrye may be more important than reproduction by seed [138], though some authors report it relies primarily on recruitment from seed for stand replacement and expansion [88].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:Elevation: The general elevation range of basin wildrye is 1,970 to 9,840 feet (600-3,000 m) [27,66]. It grows at 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300-600 m) in drainage basins and up to almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in mountains [66,129,132]. The elevation distribution of basin wildrye is presented by state in the following table:
State | Elevation | References |
California | <9,840 (3,000 m) | [66] |
Idaho | 4,920 feet (1,500 m) | [6] |
Montana | 3,500-7,500 feet (1,060-2,300 m) | [113] |
Nevada | 5,200-8,400 feet (1,600-2,600 m) | [21,22,91] |
New Mexico | 5,000-8,000 feet (1,500-2,400 m) | [84] |
Utah | 2,590-9,515 feet (790-2,900 m) | [12,132] |
Wyoming | 3,000-6,770 feet (915-2,060 m) | [15,120,126] |
Climate: Basin wildrye generally requires at least 8 inches (200 mm) of precipitation per year [35], but may be adapted to sites receiving 5 to 20 inches (130-500 mm) [16,27,116]. A breakdown of annual average precipitation by state is found below:
State | Average Annual Precipitation | References |
Idaho | 8.8 inches (224 mm), 36% during April-June | [6] |
Montana | <13 inches (330) | [69] |
Nevada | 11.4 inches (290 mm) | [21,22] |
Utah | 9 to 17 inches (230-430 mm) | [12,121] |
Wyoming | 5 to 19 inches (130-220 mm) | [15] |
Basin wildrye grows at locations experiencing 3 to 4 frost-free months [6,12,15].
Topography: Basin wildrye is found on dry to moist sites [132], often occurring on bottomlands and uplands where lateral drainage and soil water are high [4,33,69,92,113,116,129]. Basin wildrye is commonly found on floodplains [25,82], prairies and foothills [27,132] with gentle to moderate slopes [127], and along streams, gullies, and roadsides [17,27,32,66,68,92,113,132].
Soils: Basin wildrye is commonly found on low lying areas with deep [1,6,27,30,113,127], well-drained soil [27,82,127], though it may also grow on poorly drained soil [120]. Basin wildrye may be intolerant of shallow soils and does not perform well on deep, coarse soils, though it is adapted to a wide range of other soil types [33,116]. It is found on fine-textured [82,129], calcareous clay soils with claypan layers around 17 inches (43 cm) deep [12], and on sandy to gravelly soils [16,17,25,68,129]. It experiences optimal growth on silty and clayey soils [129]. Soil depths on basin wildrye sites range from 12.5 to 27.5 inches (32-70 cm) [25]. Basin wildrye generally prefers deeper soils with higher effective rooting depth and/or greater effective moisture content than adjacent areas [33]. A field study in Colorado found that basin wildrye produces more biomass on sites with topsoil depth of 24 inches (60 cm) than on soil depths of 6, 12, or 18 inches (15,30, 45 cm) [102].
Basin wildrye's size and annual production suggest high seasonal water use [1,6]. However, basin wildrye has high water-use efficiency, making it tolerant of water stress [5,27]. Basin wildrye maintains its growth into the dry summer months as long as moisture remains available [5], actively photosynthesizing and transpiring after seed ripening [6]. Established stands of basin wildrye can survive long periods of summer drought [56]. Bain wildrye is also tolerant of acidity, alkalinity, and salinity [16,25,27,56,69,82,89,92,113,116,120,129]. Though well adapted to saline, arid soils, basin wildrye may require supplemental irrigation to establish from seed [108]. In laboratory experiments, basin wildrye was less tolerant of salinity at germination than at the seedling stage of development, provided salinization was gradual. Abrupt increases in salinity may result in death regardless of developmental stage [28]. Though plants survived soil osmotic potential down to -3.5 mP, the 'Magnar' cultivar of basin wildrye grown in salinized greenhouse cultures demonstrated reduced root and shoot growth and grew very little at soil osmotic potential below -1 mP [107].
Basin wildrye may also be abundant on sites with high potassium concentrations [127].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:Fire regimes: Sagebrush, desert shrub, and grassland communities with a basin wildrye component historically experienced mostly infrequent to frequent, stand-replacing fires. Sagebrush communities experienced fire intervals of 20 to 70 years, while desert shrub community fire intervals ranged from 35 to 100 years. Grassland vegetation types experienced both short fire intervals of less than 35 years as well as intervals ranging from 35 to 100 years, depending on climate and ignition sources [96]. Forest and woodland communities with a basin wildrye component historically experienced understory or mixed-severity fire regimes with varying fire return intervals [8,96]. Fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems in which basin wildrye is an important component of the vegetation are summarized below. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".
Community or Ecosystem | Dominant Species | Fire Return Interval Range (years) |
sagebrush steppe | Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata | 20-70 [96] |
basin big sagebrush | A. t. var. tridentata | 12-43 [111] |
mountain big sagebrush | A. t. var. vaseyana | 15-40 [9,26,90] |
Wyoming big sagebrush | A. t. var. wyomingensis | 10-70 (40**) [123,135] |
saltbush-greasewood | Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus | < 35 to < 100 |
desert grasslands | Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica | 5-100 |
plains grasslands | Bouteloua spp. | < 35 |
blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass | B. gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii | < 35 |
blue grama-buffalo grass | B. gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides | < 35 [96] |
curlleaf mountain-mahogany* | Cercocarpus ledifolius | 13-1000 [11,112] |
mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub | C. ledifolius-Quercus gambelii | < 35 to < 100 |
western juniper | Juniperus occidentalis | 20-70 |
Rocky Mountain juniper | J. scopulorum | < 35 |
wheatgrass plains grasslands | Pascopyrum smithii | < 35 |
pinyon-juniper | Pinus-Juniperus spp. | < 35 [96] |
Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* | P. contorta var. latifolia | 25-300+ [7,8,106] |
Colorado pinyon | P. edulis | 10-49 [96] |
interior ponderosa pine* | P. ponderosa var. scopulorum | 2-30 [8,14,81] |
galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe | Pleuraphis jamesii-Aristida purpurea | < 35 to < 100 |
eastern cottonwood | Populus deltoides | < 35 to 200 [96] |
quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) | P. tremuloides | 7-120 [8,55,87] |
mountain grasslands | Pseudoroegneria spicata | 3-40 (10**) [7,8] |
Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* | Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca | 25-100 [8,9,10] |
oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) | Quercus-Juniperus spp. | < 35 to < 200 [96] |
Basin wildrye may respond to "fire cues" like smoke. Treatment of basin wildrye seeds with the smoke of burning big sagebrush can significantly increase (p<0.10) leaf elongation rates and new leaf production compared with controls. After 83 days of growth, smoke-treated seeds produce significantly greater (p<0.05) plant mass than nontreated seeds [23].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:Fire may create openings in basin wildrye stands, providing an opportunity for Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) to establish and spread in these communities [18].
Burning may enhance basin wildrye growth. In a Nevada study, basin wildrye showed an increasing trend in percent cover over 2 years following dormant-season burns [128]. In Oregon, basin wildrye shoot density, herbage production, and the proportion of reproductive shoots increased for 2 years following dormant-season (winter and early spring) burning [137].
Basin wildrye may resprout rapidly after fire, regardless of fire severity. In a Nevada study of a few individual plants, basin wildrye resprouted in the 1st growing season following both low- and high-severity prescribed burns [100].Basin wildrye provides winter forage for elk and mule deer, though use is often low compared to other native grasses [13,83,116]. Trace amounts of basin wildrye may be present in the winter diet of bighorn sheep [75].
Basin wildrye provides summer forage for black-tailed jackrabbits [44]. Because basin wildrye remains green throughout early summer, it remains available for small mammal (vole) forage for a longer time than other grasses and may influence the population dispersion of those small mammals by providing preferred habitat [19].
The 'Magnar' and 'Trailhead' cultivars of basin wildrye may be only "lightly foraged" or "avoided" by black-tailed jackrabbits [48], cattle [51], and domestic goats [49].
Palatability/nutritional value: Basin wildrye is most palatable during the spring [71], and is fairly palatable to unpalatable for livestock during the winter grazing season [31,71]. Palatability of basin wildrye for livestock is rated as follows [37]:
Colorado | Montana | Utah | Wyoming | |
Cattle | fair | good | good | good |
Domestic sheep | fair | fair | fair | good |
Horse | fair | good | good | good |
Some authors describe basin wildrye as "high quality" forage, at least until mid-August [50], while others describe basin wildrye as deficient in phosphorus, carotene, and digestible protein [31,119]. In the northern Great Basin of Oregon, basin wildrye may have up to 25% crude protein content in spring and sustain that level until late September. However, with abundant spring moisture, basin wildrye quickly advances through maturity, potentially resulting in crude protein deficient forage by late summer [50].
The nutrient content of basin wildrye leaves and terminal stems at different times in the growing season is presented below [31]:
Ether extract | Total protein | Lignin | Cellulose | Other carbohydrates | Calcium | Phosphorus | Gross energy | Carotene | |
February | 4.0 | 3.0 | 9.4 | 37.4 | 33.5 | 0.93 | 0.06 | 1,869 | 0.0 |
September | 2.5 | 3.3 | 6.7 | 41.4 | 36.5 | 0.37 | 0.05 | 1,846 | --- |
Crude protein, moisture, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, and magnesium content of basin wildrye generally decrease with plant maturity through the growing season [94,119]. Calcium increases until midsummer, then decreases while crude fiber increases over the growing season [119]. Shading of basin wildrye by 75% may increase potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, sulfur, and nitrogen content over plants grown in 100% full sunlight [85].
Cover value: Basin wildrye provides nesting cover for waterfowl [63] and upland game birds [129], including ring-necked pheasants [116]. The old stems of basin wildrye augmented by new growth afford fair protection [63]. Deer also utilize basin wildrye for bedding cover [116].
Cover value of basin wildrye has been rated as follows [37]:
Montana | Utah | Wyoming | |
Elk | -- | fair | poor |
Mule deer | -- | fair | fair |
White-tailed deer | -- | -- | fair |
Pronghorn | -- | fair | poor |
Upland game bird | fair | good | good |
Waterfowl | -- | fair | fair |
Small nongame bird | poor | good | good |
Small mammal | poor | good | good |
Priming, a technique by which seeds are partially hydrated to a point where germination processes begin but radicle emergence does not occur, may be used to improve basin wildrye germination [61]. Priming of seeds can significantly (p<0.05) enhance germination rates of basin wildrye, increasing rates from 59% (unprimed) to 73% (primed) [60]. Priming may also reduce the number of days required for seeds to germinate; treatment for 8 days at 25 oC reduced the amount of time required to obtain 50% seed germination from 14.8 to 11.4 days [61]. Low-altitude sources of seed may have a broader usefulness in establishing stands of basin wildrye. Seeds from low altitude sources produce more seedheads than those from high altitude sources at lower altitude planting sites, while both sources produce approximately the same amount of seed heads at higher altitude planting sites [57].
Native seed sources [86] and commercial cultivars (e.g. 'Magnar', 'Trailhead') of basin wildrye are available and useful for site reclamation [27,35,65]. In revegetation attempts, yield, viability, and germination of native stands of basin wildrye may be low [41]. Germination of cultivars is generally high compared to native seeds, which generally have germination rates of 35 to 40% [41]. The estimated germination percentage of 'Magnar' cultivar seeds after 1 to 2 weeks incubation at optimum temperature regimes is presented below [41]:
(16 hr) |
|||
15 oC | 20 oC | 25 oC | |
10 oC | 86 | 91 | 87 |
15 oC | 92 | 97 | 93 |
20 oC | -- | 97 | 93 |
25 oC | -- | -- | 87 |
In this study, germination of the cultivar seeds was increasingly delayed at colder, warmer, or widely fluctuating temperature regimes [41].
Basin wildrye may be planted in either the spring or fall [35].
Transplant survival of basin wildrye may be as high as 85 to 90%, though plants may suffer considerable shock during the 1st growing season following transplant. Plants generally experience vigorous growth by the 2nd post-transplant season [6,115] and are able to extract water from depths to 6.5 feet (2 m) [115].
OTHER USES:Basin wildrye is intolerant of heavy or repeated grazing [69,71,92,113,120,129,140], especially if grazed before reaching maturity [92]. Cutting and grazing of basin wildrye in early spring may be particularly detrimental [79,116,120]. Removal of 25, 50 75, or 100% of basin wildrye herbage during spring in Montana reduces total season yields and yields the following year. Greater reductions in growth correspond to increases in herbage removed, especially when sites are cut during the boot stage, the period of rapid elongation of growing points that occurs from growth onset through full bloom. In addition, no more than 50% of herbage should be utilized prior to the boot stage [79].
Clipping height and frequency have more influence on seasonal dry matter yields of basin wildrye than time of clipping during the growing season. At sites in Montana, 3-week clipping frequencies (compared with 6- or 9-week frequencies) reduced dry matter yields the most, as did clipping to 6 inches (15 cm) compared with clipping to 12 or 18 inches (30 or 45 cm). The greatest decrease in dry matter was in those plants clipped to 6 inches (15 cm) at 3-week intervals. After 4 years, all treatments resulted in decreased dry matter yields [98].
Severe depletion of carbohydrate reserves may occur after clipping basin wildrye and is potentially related to the species sensitivity to grazing. In a study of clipping treatments, basin wildrye clipped to 4 inches (10 cm) resulted in substantially lower total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) reserves than clipping to 12 inches (30 cm). Plants clipped to 12 inches (30 cm) are also more likely to regain their prior-to-clipping TNC levels. In control treatments, TNC of unclipped plants decreased in June then steadily increased through the summer [97].1. Abbott, Michael L.; Fraley, Leslie, Jr.; Reynolds, Timothy D. 1991. Root profiles of selected cold desert shrubs and grasses in disturbed and undisturbed soils. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 31(2): 165-178. [15472]
2. Agee, James K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-320. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23656]
3. Agee, James K. 1996. Fire in the Blue Mountains: a history, ecology, and research agenda. In: Jaindl, R. G.; Quigley, T. M., eds. Search for a solution: sustaining the land, people and economy of the Blue Mountains. Washington, DC: American Forests: 119-145. [28827]
4. Anderson, E. William. 1956. Some soil-plant relationships in eastern Oregon. Journal of Range Management. 9(4): 171-175. [314]
5. Anderson, Jay E.; Nowak, Robert S.; Rasmuson, Kaylie E.; Toft, Nancee L. 1995. Gas exchange and resource-use efficiency of Leymus cinereus (Poaceae): diurnal and seasonal responses to naturally declining soil moisture. American Journal of Botany. 82(6): 699-708. [26073]
6. Anderson, Jay E.; Shumar, Mark L.; Toft, Nancee L. 1987. Use of soil water by plants in a cold-desert ecosystem. Journal of the Idaho Academy of Science. 23(1): 1. Abstract. [4897]
7. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]
8. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]
9. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]
10. Arno, Stephen F.; Scott, Joe H.; Hartwell, Michael G. 1995. Age-class structure of old growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir stands and its relationship to fire history. Res. Pap. INT-RP-481. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 25 p. [25928]
11. Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. 1986. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 241-243. [350]
12. Astroth, Kirk A.; Frischknecht, Neil C. 1984. Managing Intermountain rangelands--research on the Benmore Experimental Range, 1940-84. Gen. Tech, Rep. INT-175. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 44 p. [361]
13. Austin, Dennis D.; Stevens, Richard; Jorgensen, Kent R.; Urness, Philip J. 1994. Preferences of mule deer for 16 grasses found on Intermountain winter ranges. Journal of Range Management. 47(4): 308-311. [24240]
14. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]
15. Barker, Jerry R.; McKell, Cyrus M. 1983. Habitat differences between basin and Wyoming big sagebrush in contiguous populations. Journal of Range Management. 36(4): 450-454. [8100]
16. Barker, R. E.; Holzworth, L. K.; Asay, K. H. 1985. Genetic resources of wheatgrass and wildrye species native to the rangelands of western North America. In: Carlson, Jack R.; McArthur, E. Durant, chairmen. Range plant improvement in western North America: Proceedings of a symposium at the annual meeting of the Society for Range Management; 1985 February 14; Salt Lake City, UT. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management: 9-13. [4381]
17. Barkworth, Mary E.; Atkins, Riley J. 1984. Leymus hochst. (Gramineae: Triticeae) in North America: taxonomy and distribution. American Journal of Botany. 71(5): 609-625. [2889]
18. Barrington, Mac; Bunting, Steve; Wright, Gerald. 1988. A fire management plan for Craters of the Moon National Monument. Cooperative Agreement CA-9000-8-0005. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Range Resources Department. 52 p. Draft. [1687]
19. Batzli, George O. 1974. Influence of habitat structure on a population of voles. Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences. 73: 83-85. [3280]
20. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
21. Blackburn, Wilbert H.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr.; Tueller, Paul T. 1969. Vegetation and soils of the Crane Springs Watershed. R-55. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Agricultural Experiment Station. 65 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. [456]
22. Blackburn, Wilbert H.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr.; Tueller, Paul T. 1971. Vegetation and soils of the Rock Springs Watershed. R-83. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Agricultural Experiment Station. 116 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. [457]
23. Blank, Robert R.; Young, James A. 1998. Heated substrate and smoke: influence on seed emergence and plant growth. Journal of Range Management. 51(5): 577-583. [29756]
24. Bradley, Anne F.; Fischer, William C.; Noste, Nonan V. 1992. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-290. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 92 p. [19558]
25. Brichta, Paul Harold. 1986. Environmental relationships among wetland community types of the northern range, Yellowstone National Park. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 74 p. Thesis. [6727]
26. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]
27. Cash, S. D.; Majerus, M. E.; Scheetz, J. C.; [and others]. 1998. Registration of `Trailhead' basin wildrye. Crop Science. 38(1): 278. [34888]
28. Choudhuri, G. N. 1968. Effect of soil salinity on germination and survival of some steppe plants in Washington. Ecology. 49(3): 465-471. [623]
29. Coggins, Kreg A. 1998. Relationship between habitat changes and productivity of sage grouse at Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge, Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 61 p. Thesis. [34317]
30. Cole, Nancy; Anderson, Jay E. 1984. Plant and soil water relations at a prescribed burn site on the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. In: Markham, O. Doyle, ed. Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Radioecology and Ecology -x Programs. 1983 Progress Reports. Idaho Falls, ID: U.S. Department of Energy, Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory: 240-249. [8622]
31. Cook, C. Wayne; Stoddart, L. A.; Harris, Lorin E. 1954. The nutritive value of winter range plants in the Great Basin as determined with digestion trials with sheep. Bulletin 372. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 56 p. [682]
32. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; [and others]. 1977. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 6. The Monocotyledons. New York: Columbia University Press. 584 p. [719]
33. Culver, Roger Norman. 1964. An ecological reconnaissance of the Artemisia steppe on the east central Owyhee uplands of Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 99 p. Thesis. [723]
34. Daubenmire, R. 1970. Steppe vegetation of Washington. Technical Bulletin 62. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, College of Agriculture, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. 131 p. [733]
35. Davenport Seed Corporation. 1997. Rainier Seed, Inc. [Catalog]. Davenport, WA: Davenport Seed Corporation. 20 p. [27624]
36. Dewey, Douglas R. 1972. Cytogenetics of Elymus angustus and its hybrids with Elymus giganteus, Elymus cinereus, and Agropyron repens. Botanical Gazette. 133(1): 57-64. [24890]
37. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
38. Dorn, Robert D. 1977. Flora of the Black Hills. [Place of publication unknown]: Robert D. Dorn and Jane L. Dorn. 377 p. [820]
39. Dorn, Robert D. 1984. Vascular plants of Montana. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 276 p. [819]
40. Erhard, Dean H. 1979. Plant communities and habitat types in the Lava Beds National Monument, California. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 173 p. Thesis. [869]
41. Evans, Raymond A.; Young, James A. 1983. `Magnar' basin wildrye--germination in relation to temperature. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 395-398. [24887]
42. Everett, Richard L.; Ward, Kenneth. 1984. Early plant succession on pinyon-juniper controlled burns. Northwest Science. 58(1): 57-68. [901]
43. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
44. Fagerstone, Kathleen A.; Lavoie, G. Keith; Griffith, Richard E., Jr. 1980. Black-tailed jackrabbit diet and density on rangeland and near agricultural crops. Journal of Range Management. 33(3): 229-233. [21756]
45. Ferguson, Robert B.; Frischknecht, Neil C. 1985. Reclamation on Utah's Emery and Alton coal fields: techniques and plant materials. Res. Pap. INT-335. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 78 p. [917]
46. Frelich, James R.; Jensen, E. H.; Gifford, R. O. 1973. Effect of crust rigidity and osmotic potential on emergence of six grass species. Agronomy Journal. 65: 26-29. [3705]
47. Frischknecht, Neil C.; Plummer, A. Perry. 1955. A comparison of seeded grasses under grazing and protection on a mountain brush burn. Journal of Range Management. 8: 170-175. [979]
48. Ganskopp, D.; Myers, B.; Lambert, S. 1993. Black-tailed jackrabbit preferences for eight forages used for reclamation of Great Basin rangelands. Northwest Science. 67(4): 246-250. [25024]
49. Ganskopp, D.; Richman, L.; Johnson, D.; [and others]. 1996. Preferences of angora goats for eight selections of grasses used for reclamation of Great Basin rangelands. Small Ruminant Research. 19(2): 103-112. [35395]
50. Ganskopp, Dave; Bohnert, Dave. 2001. Nutritional dynamics of 7 northern Great Basin grasses. Journal of Range Management. 54(6): 640-647. [40160]
51. Ganskopp, David; Myers, Bill; Lambert, Scott; Cruz, Ruben. 1997. Preferences and behavior of cattle grazing 8 varieties of grasses. Journal of Range Management. 50(6): 578-586. [29175]
52. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
53. Gregg, Michael A.; Crawford, John A.; Drut, Martin S.; DeLong, Anita K. 1994. Vegetational cover and predation of sage grouse nests in Oregon. Journal of Wildlife Management. 58(1): 162-166. [25626]
54. Groves, Craig R.; Anderson, Jay E. 1981. Allelopathic effects of Artemisia tridentata leaves on germination and growth of two grass species. The American Midland Naturalist. 106(1): 73-79. [16926]
55. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. [3862]
56. Hafenrichter, A. L.; Schwendiman, John L.; Harris, Harold L.; [and others]. 1968. Grasses and legumes for soil conservation in the Pacific Northwest and Great Basin states. Agric. Handb. 339. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 69 p. [18604]
57. Hall, J. W.; Stout, D. G.; Brooke, B. 1990. Effect of seed source on growth of giant wildrye (Elymus cinereus) at two elevations in interior British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 90: 551-554. [24894]
58. Hallsten, Gregory P.; Skinner, Quentin D.; Beetle, Alan A. 1987. Grasses of Wyoming. 3rd ed. Research Journal 202. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 432 p. [2906]
59. Hansen, Paul L.; Chadde, Steve W.; Pfister, Robert D. 1988. Riparian dominance types of Montana. Misc. Publ. No. 49. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station. 411 p. [5660]
60. Hardegree, Stuart P. 1994. Drying and storage effects on germination of primed grass seeds. Journal of Range Management. 47(3): 196-199. [34943]
61. Hardegree, Stuart P. 1994. Germination enhancement of perennial grasses native to the Intermountain region. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G, compilers. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 229-232. [24287]
62. Hargis, Christina; McCarthy, Clinton. 1986. Vegetation changes following a prescribed burn on a Great Basin meadow. In: Transactions of the Western Section of the Wildlife Society. 22: 47-51. [15955]
63. Harris, Stanley W. 1954. An ecological study of the waterfowl of the Potholes Area, Grant County, Washington. The American Midland Naturalist. 52(2): 403-432. [11207]
64. Hart, Jeffrey A. 1981. The ethnobotany of the northern Cheyenne Indians of Montana. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 4: 1-55. [35893]
65. Hassell, Wendall G. 1982. New plant materials for reclamation. In: Aldon, Earl F.; Oaks, Wendall R., eds. Reclamation of mined lands in the Southwest: a symposium: Proceedings; 1982 October 20-22; Albuquerque, NM. Albuquerque, NM: Soil Conservation Society of America, New Mexico Chapter: 108-112. [1104]
66. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
67. Hitchcock, A. S. 1951. Manual of the grasses of the United States. Misc. Publ. No. 200. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration. 1051 p. [2nd edition revised by Agnes Chase in two volumes. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.]. [1165]
68. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
69. Holzworth, Larry; Lacey, John. 1993. Species selection criteria for seeding dryland pastures in Montana. Extension Bulletin 19. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Extension Service. 12 p. [21134]
70. Jankovsky-Jones, Mabel; Rust, Steven K.; Moseley, Robert K. 1999. Riparian reference areas in Idaho: a catalog of plant associations and conservation sites. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-20. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 141 p. [29900]
71. Jarecki, Charles M. 1985. Basin wildrye--it's more than just another forage. Rangelands. 7(4): 161-162. [1257]
72. Johnson, Charles G., Jr.; Clausnitzer, Roderick R.; Mehringer, Peter J.; Oliver, Chadwick D. 1994. Biotic and abiotic processes of Eastside ecosystems: the effects of management on plant and community ecology, and on stand and landscape vegetation dynamics. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-322. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23239]
73. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]
74. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
75. Keating, Kimberly A.; Irby, Lynn R.; Kasworm, Wayne F. 1985. Mountain sheep winter food habits in the upper Yellowstone Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management. 49(1): 156-161. [15521]
76. Klebenow, D.; Beall, R.; Bruner, A.; [and others]. 1976. Controlled fire as a management tool in the pinyon-juniper woodland, Nevada. Summary Progress Report FY 1977. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 73 p. [35528]
77. Klebenow, Donald A.; Beall, Robert C. 1978. Fire impacts on birds and mammals on Great Basin rangelands. In: Johnson, Carl, general chairman. Proceedings of the 1977 rangeland management and fire symposium; 1977 November 1-3; Casper, WY. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station: 59-62. [31169]
78. Klebenow, Donald A.; Beall, Robert C. 1978. Fire impacts on birds and mammals on Great Basin rangelands. In: Johnson, Carl, general chairman. Proceedings, 1977 rangeland management and fire symposium; 1977 November 1-3; Casper, WY. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station: 59-62. [1348]
79. Krall, James L.; Stroh, James R.; Cooper, Clee S.; Chapman, Stephen R. 1971. Effect of time and extent of harvesting basin wildrye. Journal of Range Management. 24(6): 414-418. [8140]
80. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]
81. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]
82. Lesperance, A. L.; Young, James A.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr.; Evans, Raymond A. 1978. Great Basin wildrye. Rangeman's Journal. 5(4): 125-127. [3829]
83. Majerus, Mark E. 1992. High-stature grasses for winter grazing. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. May-June: 224-225. [18713]
84. Martin, William C.; Hutchins, Charles R. 1981. A flora of New Mexico. Volume 2. Germany: J. Cramer. 2589 p. [37175]
85. Mayland, H. F.; Grunes, D. L. 1974. Shade-induced grass-tetany-prone chemical changes in Agropyron desertorum and Elymus cinereus. Journal of Range Management. 27(3): 198-201. [134]
86. McArthur, E. Durant; Young, Stanford A. 1999. Development of native seed supplies to support restoration of pinyon-juniper sites. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard, compilers. Proceedings: ecology and management of pinyon-juniper communities within the Interior West: Sustaining and restoring a diverse ecosystem; 1997 September 15-18; Provo, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-9. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 327-330. [30591]
87. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]
88. Meyer, S. E.; Beckstead, J.; Allen, P. S.; Pullman, H. 1995. Germination ecophysiology of Leymus cinereus (Poaceae). International Journal of Plant Science. 156(2): 206-215. [27095]
89. Miller, R. F.; Branson, I. S.; McQueen, I. S; Snyder, C. T. 1982. Water relations in soils as related to plant communities in Ruby Valley, Nevada. Journal of Range Management. 35(4): 462-468. [1652]
90. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [26637]
91. Mooney, Melissa Jane. 1985. A preliminary classification of high-elevation sagebrush-grass vegetation in northern and central Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 123 p. Thesis. [1689]
92. Morris, H. E.; Booth, W. E.; Payne, G. F.; Stitt, R. E. 1950. Important grasses on Montana ranges. Bull. No. 470. Bozeman, MT: Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 52 p. [5520]
93. Mueggler, W. F.; Stewart, W. L. 1980. Grassland and shrubland habitat types of western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-66. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 154 p. [1717]
94. Murray, R. B.; Mayland, H. F.; Van Soest, P. J. 1979. Seasonal changes in nutritional quality of Agropyron desertorum compared with six other semi-arid grasses. In: Goodin, J. R.; Northington, David K., eds. Arid land plant resources: Proceedings of the international arid lands conference on plant resources; [Date of conference unknown]; Lubbock, TX. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies: 539-549. [1724]
95. Nevada Chapter - The Wildlife Society. 1998. Influence of fire on wildlife habitat in the Great Basin: a position statement - August 16, 1998. Transactions, Western Section of the Wildlife Society. 34: 42-57. [35093]
96. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-volume 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
97. Perry, L. J., Jr.; Chapman, S. R. 1974. Effects of clipping on carbohydrate reserves in basin wildrye. Agronomy Journal. 66: 67-69. [8090]
98. Perry, L. J., Jr.; Chapman, S. R. 1975. Effects of clipping on dry matter yields of basin wildrye. Journal of Range Management. 28(4): 271-274. [8112]
99. Plummer, A. Perry. 1970. Plants for revegetation of roadcuts and other disturbed or eroded areas. Range Improvement Notes. 15(1): 1-10. [1897]
100. Range, Phil; Veisze, Paul; Beyer, Cheryl; Zschaechner, Greg. 1982. Great Basin rate-of-spread study: Fire behavior/fire effects. Reno, Nevada: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Nevada State Office, Branch of Protection. 56 p. [1935]
101. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
102. Redente, E. F.; McLendon, T.; Agnew, W. 1997. Influence of topsoil depth on plant community dynamics of a seeded site in northwest Colorado. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation. 11: 139-149. [27751]
103. Reynolds, Timothy D.; Fraley, Leslie, Jr. 1989. Root profiles of some native and exotic plant species in southeastern Idaho. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 29(2): 241-248. [36276]
104. Richards, Rebecca T.; Chambers, Jeanne C.; Ross, Christopher. 1998. Use of native plants on federal lands: policy and practice. Journal of Range Management. 51(6): 625-632. [30307]
105. Richardson, Bland Z. 1985. Reclamation in the Intermountain Rocky Mountain Region. In: McCarter, M. K., ed. Design of non-impounding mine waste dumps; [Date of conference unknown]; [Location of conference unknown]. New York: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc: 177-192. [12780]
106. Romme, William H. 1982. Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Monographs. 52(2): 199-221. [9696]
107. Roundy, Bruce A. 1983. Response of basin wildrye and tall wheatgrass seedlings to salination. Agronomy Journal. 75: 67-71. [8127]
108. Roundy, Bruce A. 1985. Emergence and establishment of basin wildrye and tall wheatgrass in relation to moisture and salinity. Journal of Range Management. 38(2): 126-131. [2033]
109. Roundy, Bruce A. 1985. Germination and seedling growth of tall wheatgrass and basin wildrye in relation to boron. Journal of Range Management. 38(3): 270-272. [2837]
110. Roundy, Bruce A.; Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1985. Germination of basin wildrye and tall wheatgrass in relation to osmotic and matric potential. Agronomy Journal. 77(1): 129-135. [4063]
111. Sapsis, David B. 1990. Ecological effects of spring and fall prescribed burning on basin big sagebrush/Idaho fescue--bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 105 p. Thesis. [16579]
112. Schultz, Brad W. 1987. Ecology of curlleaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) in western and central Nevada: population structure and dynamics. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 111 p. Thesis. [7064]
113. Shaw, A. F.; Cooper, C. S. 1973. The interagency forage, conservation and wildlife handbook. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Extension Service. 205 p. [5666]
114. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]
115. Shumar, Mark L.; Anderson, Jay E. 1987. Research note: Transplanting wildings in small revegetation projects. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation. 1: 253-256. [3005]
116. Sours, John M. 1983. Characteristics and uses of important grasses for arid western rangelands. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Shaw, Nancy, compilers. Managing Intermountain rangelands--improvement of range and wildlife habitats: Proceedings of a symposia; 1981 September 15-17; Twin Falls, ID; 1982 June 22-24; Elko, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-157. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 90-94. [2201]
117. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 10 p. [20090]
118. Stuart, D. M.; Eckert, R. E., Jr.; Dylla, A. S.; Schuman, G. E. 1973. Seeding coppice dune areas in northern Nevada. [Report No. Unknown]. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Agricultural Experiment Station. 17 p. [24893]
119. Torell, D. J.; Lesperance, A. L.; Cooper, B. R. 1981. A nutritive evaluation of an Elymus cinereus plant community. Proceedings, Western Section, American Society of Animal Science. 32: 208-210. [24892]
120. Tweit, Susan J.; Houston, Kent E. 1980. Grassland and shrubland habitat types of the Shoshone National Forest. Cody, WY: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 2, Shoshone National Forest. 143 p. [2377]
121. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 1989. Identification characteristics of major sagebrush taxa and species adapted to areas inhabited by each. The Habitat Express. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. No. 89-1. 2 p. [5911]
122. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Resource Conservation Service. 2002. PLANTS database (2002), [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov /. [34262]
123. Vincent, Dwain W. 1992. The sagebrush/grasslands of the upper Rio Puerco area, New Mexico. Rangelands. 14(5): 268-271. [19698]
124. Wade, Dale D.; Brock, Brent L.; Brose, Patrick H.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in eastern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 53-96. [36983]
125. Wakkinen, Wayne L. 1990. Nest site characteristics and spring-summer movements of migratory sage grouse in southeastern Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 57 p. Thesis. [35048]
126. Walford, Gillian; Jones, George; Fertig, Walt; [and others]. 2001. Riparian and wetland plant community types of the Shoshone National Forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-85. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station; Cody, WY: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cody Conservation District. 122 p. [40599]
127. Walker, G. R.; Brotherson, J. D. 1982. Habitat relationships of basin wildrye in mountain valleys of central Utah. Journal of Range Management. 35(5): 628-633. [2440]
128. Ward, Kenneth V. 1977. Two-year vegetation response and successional trends for spring burns in the pinyon-juniper woodland. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 62 p. Thesis. [276]
129. Wasser, Clinton H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the West. FWS/OBS-82/56. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services, Western Energy and Land Use Team. 347 p. Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA 22161; PB-83-167023. [2458]
130. Weber, William A. 1987. Colorado flora: western slope. Boulder, CO: Colorado Associated University Press. 530 p. [7706]
131. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2nd ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]
132. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
133. West, Neil E.; Tausch, Robin J.; Tueller, Paul T. 1998. A management-oriented classification of pinyon-juniper woodlands of the Great Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-12. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 42 p. [29131]
134. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1978. Seed and seedbed ecology of Great Basin wildrye. In: Proceedings, 31st annual meeting of the Society for Range Management: 8. [Abstract]. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Lab, Missoula, MT. [24206]
135. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1981. Demography and fire history of a western juniper stand. Journal of Range Management. 34(6): 501-505. [2659]
136. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1981. Germination of Great Basin wildrye seeds collected from native stands. Agronomy Journal. 73: 917-920. [3747]
137. Young, Richard P. 1986. Fire ecology and management in plant communities of Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. Portland, OR: Oregon State University. 169 p. Thesis. [3745]
138. Youtie, Berta A.; Johnson, James B. 1988. Association of the wheat stem sawfly with basin wildrye. Journal of Range Management. 41(4): 328-331. [4558]
139. Youtie, Berta A.; Stafford, Michael; Johnson, James B. 1987. Herbivorous and parasitic insect guilds associated with Great Basin wildrye (Elymus cinereus) in southern Idaho. The Great Basin Naturalist. 47(4): 644-651. [3744]
140. Zacek, Joseph C.; Hunter, Harold E.; Bown, T. A.; Ross, Robert L. 1977. Montana grazing guides. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 12 p. [2687]
141. Zschaechner, Greg A. 1985. Studying rangeland fire effects: a case study in Nevada. In: Sanders, Ken; Durham, Jack, eds. Rangeland fire effects: Proceedings of the symposium; 1984 November 27-29; Boise, ID. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office: 66-84. [2692]