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Prairie Junegrass occurs from Alberta south to California and east to New Foundland and Arkansas
[47,53,55,56].
ECOSYSTEMS [46]:
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES26 Lodgepole Pine
FRES28 Western Hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
STATES:
| AZ | AR | CA | CO | CT | DE |
| ID | IL | IN | IA | KS | LA |
| ME | MA | MI | MN | MO | MT |
| NE | NV | NH | NM | NY | NC |
| ND | OH | OK | OR | PA | SC |
| SD | TX | UT | VT | WA | WI |
| WY | |||||
| AB | BC | MB | NB | NF | NS |
| ON | PE | PQ | SK | ||
| MEXICO |
Prairie Junegrass is a key winter forage plant for ungulates of British Colombia prairies. However, it is ranked at low importance for coast deer, white-tailed deer, Roosevelt elk, Rocky Mountain elk, moose and caribou and at moderate importance for mule deer, mountain goat and bighorn sheep [20].
PALATABILITY:| CO | MT | ND | UT | WY | |
| Cattle | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good |
| Domestic Sheep | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good |
| Horses | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good |
| Pronghorn | ---- | Fair | Poor | Fair | Good |
| Elk | ---- | Fair-Good | ---- | Good | Good |
| Mule deer | ---- | Fair | Poor | Fair | Good |
| White-tailed deer | ---- | ---- | Poor | ---- | Good |
| Small mammals | ---- | ---- | Poor | Good | Fair |
| Small non-game birds | ---- | ---- | Poor | Good | Fair |
| Upland game birds | ---- | ---- | Poor | Fair | Fair |
| Waterfowl | ---- | ---- | Fair | Poor | Fair |
| Hay, dry | Aerial part fresh, immature | Aerial part fresh, mature | Aerial part fresh overripe | |
| % Dry matter | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
| % Ash | 7.8 | 7.8 | 8.1 | 7.7 |
| % Crude Fiber | 34.2 | 25.8 | 38.6 | 41.0 |
| % Ether extract | 2.9 | 2.3 | 2.5 | 1.8 |
| % N-Free extract | 46.0 | 40.3 | 45.0 | 45.7 |
| % Protein (N x 6.25) | 9.1 | 23.8 | 5.8 | 3.8 |
| % digestible protein - Cattle | 4.8 | 18.1 | 2.8 | 1.1 |
| % digestible protein - Horses | 5.2 | 17.7 | 2.5 | 0.8 |
| % digestible protein - Sheep | 4.7 | 19.2 | 2.4 | 0.5 |
| Energy | ||||
| Cattle DE1 Mcal/kg | 2.11 | 2.50 | 2.31 | 2.31 |
| Sheep DE1 Mcal/kg | 1.99 | 2.59 | 2.44 | 2.47 |
| Cattle ME2 Mcal/kg | 1.73 | 2.05 | 1.89 | 1.89 |
| Sheep ME2 Mcal/kg | 1.63 | 2.12 | 2.00 | 2.03 |
| Cattle TDN3 % | 47.8 | 56.7 | 52.5 | 52.3 |
| Sheep TDN3 % | 45.2 | 58.8 | 55.3 | 56.0 |
| MT | ND | UT | WY | |
Small mammals |
Poor | Poor | Good | Fair |
| Small non-game birds | Poor | Fair | Good | Fair |
| Upland game birds | Poor | Fair | Fair | Fair |
| Waterfowl | Good | Poor | Poor | Fair |
Prairie Junegrass's ability to suppress invasive annuals is variable. Reestablishing prairie Junegrass populations, through greenhouse propagation and transplant, within an area overrun by annuals has been successful [72]. Borman and others [22] observed a weak ability to exclude annual weeds in southwest Oregon. When grown with the invasive Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus) under densities of 0, 50, 100, 200 and 400 m-2, emergence and seedling survival of prairie Junegrass were not affected [96].
Prairie Junegrass has the ability to revegetate areas of high soil disturbance. Sod obtained from a native rough fescue (Festuca scabrella) climax grass community (containing prairie Junegrass) in Canada was used to revegetate a steep-sloped ravine edge disturbed during road construction and community facility development [91]. Prairie Junegrass is a component in seeding mixtures designed for restoration of disturbed Fescue grassland sites within Glacier National Park [69]. A study evaluating secondary successional patterns in a big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) community in the Piceane Basin of northwest Colorado observed a positive response in prairie Junegrass vegetation cover after induced soil disturbance. Increased vegetation cover over a six year period occurred after three different soil disturbance regimes [14]:
| a) | Vegetation mechanically removed and soil scarified to 12 inches (30 cm) |
| b) | Top soil and subsoil (C horizon) removed to 3.3 feet (1 m) mixed and replaced |
| c) | 2 layers, 3.3 feet (1 m), soil removed and replaced in reverse order (second layer on top) |
Disturbance of sites with loamy surface soil and heavy clay subsoil by vehicle traffic and bison activity in Wood Buffalo National Park, Alberta, was associated with increased coverage for prairie Junegrass. Undisturbed sites showed 0.25 to 1.4% cover, disturbed 3.4 to 3.8% cover [89].
Larger numbers of seed for native species are finding their way into the market every year, with availability determined by demand [107]. A seed testing procedure for purity and viability of prairie Junegrass is under development [21]. Propagation of prairie Junegrass from seed can be difficult as shown by the study results below [84]:
| Stratification | Days to 1st Germination | Days to peak Germination | Approx. # of seedlings / oz. of seed |
|
10 weeks (dry) |
13 | NA | low |
| 10 weeks (moist) | 7 | 19 | low |
Direct seeding and seedling transplant produced poor results. Transplanting year old plants had good results [84]. Seed stratification produced greater germination rates than dry storage, 58% to 18% respectively. Viability of seed dramatically decreased from 21% in 3rd year of dry storage at room temperature to 7% in the 6th year [18].
OTHER USES AND VALUES:Grazing on prairie Junegrass populations has both positive and negative results [15,39,80,88,102,103]. Evaluations of grazing are difficult because growing conditions may prove more significant than grazing pressure. Important grazing considerations for prairie Junegrass include site characteristics (e.g. soil, elevation) [109], environmental conditions [69,105], growing season, and frequency [69]. A study comparing rotational grazing (1½ months spring and 1½ months fall every other year) and continuous grazing saw increases under both regimes; precipitation was above the long term average [103]. A study comparing rotational grazing and season long grazing on a native northern mixed-grass prairie of North Dakota was associated with positive responses in prairie Junegrass basal cover between the 1st and 4th year. Degenerative effects were seen in the 6th year [15]. Prairie Junegrass responds well to grazing and is more palatable in spring and fall [114,117]. In general, grazing conducted August through October is sustainable, if adequate moisture is available [24]. Maintaining a 3 inch (7.6 cm) stubble is recommended for seral communities of the Great Basin, Pacific Northwest and northern Great Plains [80].
The increased presence of invasive plant species in areas with prairie Junegrass has led to studies evaluating the use of herbicidal controls. Tordon and Transline were evaluated for control of spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) on native grasslands. No negative effects were documented for prairie Junegrass and increases in native grass density were observed [93]. Tebuthiuron applied to control sagebrush in Idaho had no effect on prairie Junegrass canopy cover at application rates reaching 1.1 kg ha -1 [123].
Correlations between mycorrhizal associations and prairie Junegrass stage of development have been observed. Positive associations are seen within early seedling development [51]. In later developmental stages, a negative association was documented within several grassland communities. In the absence of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) in low P soils, prairie Junegrass outcompeted big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii); t he opposite was true in the presence of VAM and P [52]. Suppression of mycorrhizal symbiosis increased the biomass of prairie Junegrass within a experimental tall-grass prairie consisting of big bluestem, purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea), speedwell (Veronica fasciculata) and tall blazing star (Liatris aspera) [124].Prairie Junegrass is a loosely-tufted, shallow-rooted, native grass of small stature. This cool-season perennial bunchgrass has long, mostly basal leaves [11,43,56,110]. The panicle is narrow and spikelike, except during spring flowering, when open [117].
Quantitative botanical characteristics are extremely variable depending upon sample location. The spikelike panicle can range from 1 to 7 inches (2.5-17.8 cm) in length [117] and is usually two flowered and compressed [54]. During flowering the spikelike branches are open [78]. The long, narrow, flat leaves range from 1.5 to 5 inches (3.8-12.7 cm) long from their basal point of attachment [117]. Prairie Junegrass's leaves are drought resistant and persist under dry conditions [33].
Prairie Junegrass has an average maximum rooting depth between 13 to 29.5 inches (33-75 cm) [29]. Root density decreases after 11.8 inches (30 cm), with the greatest concentration of fibrous roots found within the upper 1.2 inches (3 cm) [107]. Lateral spread ranges from 5.9 to 7.9 inches (15-20 cm) near the soil surface [29].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM:Temperature, soil moisture and seasonality provide cues for germination of prairie Junegrass [40,104,112]. A comparison of germination and emergence of prairie Junegrass at 45 (7°C), 55 (13°C), 64 (18°C) and 80 (27°C) degrees Fahrenheit, showed the greatest % emergence at 64 degrees Fahrenheit (18°C) [104]. Blake [18] observed good germination within silt loam at 1/2 and 1/3 saturation. Prairie Junegrass also possesses the ability to germinate under periods of water stress. Germination responses were observed at water potential between 0 to 12 bars [40].
A seedbank evaluation of prairie Junegrass found that seed was infrequent or absent within sampled areas, although prairie Junegrass was a significant member of the plant community [112]. Seedbank germination response to seasonality was also measured. Prairie Junegrass showed no seedling establishment during early spring (May and June) [112]. Large peaks were observed during late summer and autumn [112].
The presence of mycorrhizae may have a significant (p< 0.05) positive effect on seedling emergence [51]. Neutral effects have also been reported [124].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:The wide distribution of prairie Junegrass across several habitat types is consistent with its occurrence on many soil types [58,87]. A study evaluating ecological factors associated with production of grassland communities in western North Dakota found prairie Junegrass a member of several plant communities of different soils and vegetation [90]. Percent clay doesn't appear to have a great effect upon the presence of prairie Junegrass [58]. Steep slopes and well-drained soils with moderate to high water holding capacity are preferred [97]. Within sagebrush communities of Grand Teton National Park, a greater occurrence of prairie Junegrass was found on coarse textured soils [98]. An evaluation within the White Mountains of California found prairie Junegrass occurring on carbonate, noncarbonate, basalt, sandstone, and adamellite substrates, with a moderate affinity for noncarbonates [72]. A positive association with exchangeable Na was also found, along with a negative association to sandstone substrates and sites with high exchangeable K [72].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:Prairie Junegrass is part of seral western juniper sites [35]. Prairie Junegrass also occurs in several climax communities. See the 'Habitat Types and Plant Communities' section of this species summary.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:| Mature Foliage Height (%) | |
| Mid-April | 65% |
| End of May | 90% |
Flowering usually occurs late spring to early summer [52]. First appearance of flowers occurs in southern regions, flowering progressively later to the north and west [74]. Prairie Junegrass is one of the earliest grasses to flower in the southern United States [74].
Initiation of growth is correlated with soil temperatures of 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4°C) and air temperature just below 42 degrees Fahrenheit (5.5°C) [29]. Blaisdell [17] observed seasonal development of prairie Junegrass in southern Idaho over six years. Mean initiation of growth occurred at the beginning of April, 10 to 15 days after disappearance of snow (4/2). Flower stalks formed at the beginning of May (5/7) with a fully developed inflorescence occurring by June 1st. Flowers bloomed mid- June (6/17) with seed ripening occurring mid-July (7/10). Seed dissemination started mid-July (7/15) and ended mid-August (8/11).
Case studies have given the following as typical flowering months: [17,31,37,54,95]
| Beginning of Flowering | End of Flowering | |
| Colorado | April |
June |
| Idaho | May - June |
June - July |
| Montana | May |
July |
| North Dakota | June |
July |
| Saskatchewan | June |
June - July |
Prairie Junegrass is reported as showing little or no damage [129] to moderate damage [126] from fire. Perennial grasses possess growing points insulated near or below the soil surface [129]. The small stature of prairie Junegrass and coarse textured foliage aid in protection of these meristimatic tissue areas [129]. Possessing coarsely textured foliage and a small clump size also limits the potential for fire damage [129]. Coarse grasses like prairie Junegrass burn quickly, transferring little heat below the soil surface [120]. As a member of eastern Oregon grasslands, prairie Junegrass is considered a superior fire-resistant perennial bunch grass [126].
Fire survival strategy for prairie Junegrass is based upon seed germination and residual plant survival [23]. The extent of damage or benefit imposed by fire is highly variable. Response can vary according to fire severity, physiological state of plant, soil moisture, and season of burn [23,101].
FIRE REGIMES:
Fire regimes for plant communities in which prairie Junegrass occurs are summarized below. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".
| Community or Ecosystem | Dominant Species | Fire Return Interval Range in Years (mean) |
| Pacific ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa | 1-47 [25] |
| interior ponderosa pine* | P. ponderosa var. scopulorum | 2-200 [25] |
| Colorado pinyon | P. edulis | 10-49 [25] |
| Mexican pinyon | P. cembroides | 20-70 [115,116 |
| Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* | Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca | 25-100 [25] |
| coastal Douglas-fir* | Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii | 40-240 [25,79,94] |
| quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) | Populus tremuloides | 7-100 [48,75] |
| oak-hickory | Quercus-Carya spp. | 50-100 [1] |
| Texas savanna | Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa | < 10 [25] |
| California montane chaparral | Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. | 50-100 [25] |
| basin big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata | 12-43 [99] |
| mountain big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana | 5-15 [127] |
| Wyoming big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis | 10-70 (40) [118,127] |
| mountain grasslands | Pseudoroegneria spicata | 3-40 (10) [7] |
| plains grasslands | Bouteloua gracilis and/or Buchloe dactyloides | 20-40 [25] |
| prairie | Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii | 1-6 [66] |
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY:
Tussock graminoid
Caudex, growing points in soil
Secondary colonizer - on-site seed
Prairie Junegrass is usually top-killed or killed by fire. Fast-moving, low-intensity fires will consume above
ground vegetation without damaging the plant's crown [101]. In general,
late-spring burns are more damaging to prairie Junegrass than early-spring, late-summer, fall, or winter burns
[113].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
The root crown of prairie Junegrass may sustain immediate damage depending upon amount of heat transferred through
the soil [36].
Meristematic tissue of most grasses is found at the ground surface in the root crown [101].
A study [36] in the southwest United States evaluated patterns of plant growth in
relation to soil heating from wildfire in chaparral systems. Prairie Junegrass was found to have a strong negative
correlation between heat load and sprouts.
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Positive postfire vegetational responses are common for prairie Junegrass. Increased seedhead presence and
height-of-inflorescence have been documented [41]. Annual burning of a native
grassland in the aspen parkland of central Alberta caused a 40% increase in seedhead presence compared to
unburned areas [5].
Prairie Junegrass's response to fire is related to season of burn, fire intensity, and postfire water availability [49]. Several studies evaluating the effect of fire on following season vigor report positive correlations [2,3,4,6,8]. Time required to acquire the approximate preburn frequency or coverage, is rapid, averaging 2 to 5 years [120].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:| Burn Season | Change in Basal Area | Mortality |
| Mid-May | -32% | 20% |
| Mid-June (Post-seed-out) | -18% | 0% |
| Mid-October | approx. -18% | 0% |
Observations of prairie Junegrass populations two years after a spring burn were conducted in Galena Gulch within the Deer Lodge National Forest in western Montana. Burned sites experienced a 40% increase in prairie Junegrass occurrence [6]. Percent coverage of prairie Junegrass was evaluated in burned and unburned sites after a June fire in western Montana. Coverage was greater in the burned areas two years after the burn populations decreased, but maintained levels above the control stands [6].
| Autumn 1977 | Spring 1978 | Summer 1978 | |||
| Unburned | Burned | Unburned | Burned | Unburned | Burned |
1.6 |
1.5 |
1.4 |
2.4 |
1.5 |
3.0 |
An experiment was initiated in 1926 on a bluestem pasture in eastern Kansas to record effects of fire upon several ecological parameters. Fires were set the same times each year beginning in 1926: early-spring (March 20), medium-spring (April 10), late-spring (May 5) and late-fall (December 1). The response of prairie Junegrass to the burns from late June, 1928, to early July, 1933, are summarized below [4]:
| Burn date | 1928 | 1929 |
1930 |
1931 |
1932 |
1933 |
Mean |
| Fall | 1,210 |
1,864 |
2,114 |
2,283 |
1,783 |
1,080 |
1,722 |
| Early-spring | 1,296 |
1,402 |
1,465 |
1,340 |
1,002 |
482 |
1,165 |
| Medium-spring | 574 |
555 |
756 |
1,031 |
767 |
523 |
701 |
| Late-spring | 1,058 |
1,052 |
1,571 |
1,818 |
1,068 |
447 |
1169 |
| Check plot | 619 |
1,084 |
1,052 |
992 |
627 |
181 |
759 |
Prairie Junegrass density on all burn treatments except medium-spring, exceeded density on the 1928 check plot until 1933, when densities were low on early-spring and late-spring treatment sites as well [4].
An August burn in northeastern Oregon resulted in elevated postburn coverage for prairie Junegrass at 1 and 5 years after moderate and low severity burns. Moderate burns maintained 5% prairie Junegrass cover, near the preburn 3% coverage. The low severity burn showed an increase the 1st year from 2% to 9%, dropping to 4% the 5th year [61].
Average % composition for prairie Junegrass was observed under different burning regimes from 1928 to 1982 on a tall-grass prairie in Kansas. Winter (December 1) and early spring (March 20) burns highly favored prairie Junegrass (p<0.05) [113]. Burns at different times show degenerative effects [19].
Twelve to 15 years after prescribed burns in eastern Idaho, prairie Junegrass produced more herbage on burned than unburned sites. Production on 'heavy' burns (main stem of sagebrush consumed by fire) was less than on 'light' (only leaves consumed) and 'moderate' (leaves and small branches consumed) burns. Results in pounds/acre are [16]:
| Fire Season | Years postfire | Unburned | Light-burn | Moderate-burn | Heavy-burn |
| August | 12 | 9.4 | 14.2 | 13.3 | 10.7 |
| September | 15 | 32.8 | 43.6 | 53.4 | 36.8 |
On ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir communities in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, prairie Junegrass cover and frequency in postfire year 4 were higher on prescribed burned sites than on thinned, thinned-and-burned, or unburned control sites. Prairie Junegrass was determined to be an indicator species for burned sites (P≤0.05). For further information on the effects of thinning and burning treatments on prairie Junegrass and 48 other species, see the Research Project Summary of Youngblood and others' [130] study.
The other following Research Project Summaries also provide information on prescribed fire use and postfire response of plant species including prairie Junegrass:
1. Abrams, Marc D. 1992. Fire and the development of oak forests. BioScience. 42(5): 346-353. [19215]
2. Adams, Glenn R. 1980. Results of range/wildlife prescribed burning on the Fort Rock Ranger District in central Oregon. R-6 Fuels Management Notes. September 24, 1980. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Aviation and Fire Management. 6 p. [292]
3. Aikman, J. M. 1955. Burning in the management of prairie in Iowa. Iowa Academy of Science. 62: 53-63. [3999]
4. Aldous, A. E. 1934. Effect of burning on Kansas bluestem pastures. Tech. Bull. 38. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State College of Agriculture and Applied Science, Agricultural Experiment Station. 65 p. [5999]
5. Anderson, Howard G.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1980. Effects of annual burning on grassland in the aspen parkland of east-central Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 58: 985-996. [3499]
6. Antos, Joseph A.; McCune, Bruce; Bara, Cliff. 1983. The effect of fire on an ungrazed western Montana grassland. The American Midland Naturalist. 110(2): 354-364. [337]
7. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]
8. Arnold, Joseph F.; Jameson, Donald A.; Reid, Elbert H. 1964. The pinyon-juniper type of Arizona: effects of grazing, fire and tree control. Production Research Report No. 84. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 28 p. [353]
9. Arnow, Lois A. 1994. Koeleria macrantha and K. pyramidata (Poaceae): nomenclatural problems and biological distinctions. Systematic Botany. 19(1): 6-20. [30498]
10. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]
11. Barnes, P. W.; Harrison A. T. 1982. Species distribution and community organization in a Nebraska sandhills mixed prairie as influenced by plant/soil-water relationships. Oecologia. 52: 192-201. [5026]
12. Beetle, Alan A. 1961. Range survey in Teton County, Wyoming. Part 1. Ecology of range resources. Bull. 376. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 42 p. [417]
13. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
14. Biondini, Mario E.; Bonham, Charles D.; Redente, Edward F. 1985. Secondary successional patterns in a sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) community as they relate to disturbance and soil biological activity. Vegetatio. 60: 25-36. [448]
15. Biondini, Mario E.; Manske, Llewellyn. 1996. Grazing frequency and ecosystem processes in a northern mixed prairie, USA. Ecological Applications. 6(1): 239-256. [26566]
16. Blaisdell, James P. 1953. Ecological effects of planned burning of sagebrush-grass range on the Upper Snake River Plains. Tech. Bull. 1975. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 39 p. [462]
17. Blaisdell, James P. 1958. Seasonal development and yield of native plants on the upper Snake River Plains and their relation to certain climatic factors. Tech. Bull. 1190. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 68 p. [463]
18. Blake, Abigail Kincaid. 1935. Viability and germination of seeds and early life history of prairie plants. Ecological Monographs. 5(4): 405-460. [22086]
19. Blankespoor, Gilbert W. 1987. The effects of prescribed burning on a tall-grass prairie remnant in eastern South Dakota. Prairie Naturalist. 19(3): 177-188. [2757]
20. Blower, Dan. 1982. Key winter forage plants for B.C. ungulates. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of the Environment, Terrestrial Studies Branch. [17065]
21. Bohnen, Julia L.; Hanchek, Anne M. 1994. Native grass and wildflower seed: an LCMR grant. In: Wickett, Robert G.; Lewis, Patricia Dolan; Woodliffe, Allen; Pratt, Paul, eds. Spirit of the land, our prairie legacy: Proceedings, 13th North American prairie conference; 1992 August 6-9; Windsor, ON. Windsor, ON: Department of Parks and Recreation: 239-241. [24698]
22. Borman, M. M.; Krueger, W. C.; Johnson, D. E. 1991. Effects of established perennial grasses on yields of associated annual weeds. Journal of Range Management. 44(4): 318-322. [16119]
23. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands of Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18212]
24. Britton, C. M.; Sneva, F. A.; Clark, R. G. 1979. Effect of harvest date on five bunchgrasses of eastern Oregon. In: 1979 Progress report...research in rangeland management. Special Report 549. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Agricultural Experiment Station: 16-19. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, SEA-AR. [2743]
25. Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. 2000. Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 257 p. [33874]
26. Burzlaff, Donald F. 1962. A soil and vegetation inventory and analysis of three Nebraska Sandhills range sites. Research Bulletin 206. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 33 p. [21600]
27. Campbell, B. D.; Grime, J. P.; Mackey, J. M. L. 1992. Shoot thrust and its role in plant competition. Journal of Ecology. 80: 633-641. [21227]
28. Campbell, J. B.; Lodge, R. W.; Johnston, A.; Smoliak, S. 1962. Range management of grasslands and adjacent parklands in the prairie provinces. Publ. 1133. Ottawa, ON: Canada Department of Agriculture, Research Branch. 32 p. [595]
29. Clarke, S. E.; Tisdale, E. W.; Skoglund, N. A. 1943. The effects of climate and grazing practices on short-grass prairie vegetation in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. Technical Bulletin No. 46. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Dominion, Department of Agriculture. 53 p. [635]
30. Coupland, Robert T. 1950. Ecology of mixed prairie in Canada. Ecological Monographs. 20(4): 271-315. [700]
31. Coupland, Robert T. 1961. A reconsideration of grassland classification in the northern Great Plains of North America. Journal of Ecology. 49: 135-167. [12588]
32. Coxson, Darwyn S.; Looney, John Henry H. 1986. Vegetation patterns within southern Alberta coulees. Canadian Journal of Botany. 64: 2464-2475. [1957]
33. Craine, J. M.; Berin, D. M.; Reich, P. B.; [and others]. 1999. Measurement of leaf longevity of 14 species of grasses and forbs using a novel approach. New Phytologist. 142: 475-481. [35526]
34. Currie, P. O.; Reichert, D. W.; Malechek, J. C.; Wallmo, O. C. 1977. Forage selection comparisons for mule deer and cattle under managed ponderosa pine. Journal of Range Management. 30(5): 352-356. [4697]
35. Dealy, J. Edward; Geist, J. Michael; Driscoll, Richard S. 1978. Communities of western juniper in the Intermountain Northwest. In: Martin, Robert E.; Dealy, J. Edward; Caraher, David L., eds. Proceedings of the western juniper ecology and management workshop; 1977 January; Bend, OR. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-74. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 11-29. [784]
36. Dion, Dennis C.; Davis, Frank W. 2000. Fire, soil heating, and formation of vegetation patterns in chaparral. Ecological Monographs. 70(1): 149-169. [35515]
37. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
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