Nutritive values for Idaho fescue were highest for plants growing in antelope bitterbrush habitat types when compared with samples taken from ponderosa pine and western juniper habitat types on Oregon winter range [128]. In Yellowstone National Park, protein content, nitrogen, macronutrient (Ca, Mg, P, K) concentrations, and digestibility were higher in Idaho fescue plants grazed by elk in the winter than in ungrazed plants [250]. 

Idaho fescue is slow to establish [119,286], but once established, has abundant growth of fine leaves that provide effective ground cover, and high yields of tough, fine, fibrous roots that control erosion and improve soil structure [119]. It has poor tolerance to salinity [286], although Ho [134] suggests this may be overcome through inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi. Idaho fescue is suitable for year-round planting (fair in winter) [286], has good stand maintenance [119,286], and retards or prevents the invasion of weeds once firmly established [33,119]. Its close relative, sheep fescue (Festuca ovina), provides excellent ground cover and has a dense root mass that improves soil structure, holds the soil in place, and resists invasion of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and other weeds [168]. 

The competitive influence of invasive species such as spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) and cheatgrass can interfere with the re-establishment of slower growing, native perennials [169,183]. Borman and others [33,34] found Idaho fescue was 1 of the perennial grasses that, once established, suppressed resident annual plant production.  Nasri and Deoescher [209,210] studied the effects of competition by cheatgrass on shoot growth of Idaho fescue and found that increasing cheatgrass cover depleted soil moisture and reduced growth of Idaho fescue; however, Idaho fescue produced greater tiller and leaf numbers than did cheatgrass. Lindquist and others [169] found Idaho fescue had no impact on spotted knapweed growth in greenhouse studies. Furthermore, Marler and others [176] found that vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae enhance spotted knapweed's competitive dominance over Idaho fescue.

Site preparation and seeding method are important considerations for rehabilitation of disturbed sites. Everett [103] found that the litter of singleleaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla) appeared to inhibit emergence of Idaho fescue. Vallentine and Stevens [287] suggested using livestock to "graze out" invading cheatgrass as site preparation for reseeding with perennials including Idaho fescue. Seedling emergence is greater when seed is protected with mulch [55,119] or is mixed with an earlier seral, rapid-developing grass [119]. Chambers and others [56] found seeds collected from the Beartooth Plateau in Montana had high viability and high germination under all conditions in the laboratory and suggested that adequate field germination could be obtained by employing a variety of seeding methods such as surface sowing and shallow drilling.

Selection of seed is an important consideration in any revegetation program. Idaho fescue exhibits ecotypic development expressed in differential growth characteristics in seeds collected from different habitat types [89]. Seeds of Idaho fescue collected from a pristine population produced plants with more aboveground biomass than plants collected from degraded sites, and exhibited a different response to competition than those from the degraded site [209]. Plants grown from seed taken from populations that evolved with frequent and intense defoliation tend to have shorter and more prostrate genotypes [209]. Shaw and Cooper [246] claim that Idaho fescue has not been successful in Montana reseeding programs, but used seed collected at low elevations to reseed a site at 9,300 feet (2790 m). Age of seed is also an important consideration when seeding with Idaho fescue [54]. Eddleman [97] found germination was highest with new seed (3 months old) and declined with seed age, although cold temperatures (4 ^oC) promoted germination for older (15 months) seed. Maguire and others [172] suggest matriconditioning of seed (with Ca₂Si) to improve germination rates. Holzworth and Lacey [137] discuss 2 cultivars of Idaho fescue with potential for restoration programs. Information is available regarding the seed collection and production, planting, and monitoring [174].

Majerus [173] lists Idaho fescue among the native plant species found to reestablish naturally on disturbed sites in Yellowstone and Glacier national parks, and cites its use in seed mixtures for restoration of fescue grasslands in those areas. Youtie [315] used seed propagated in the greenhouse to establish Idaho fescue in a small native plant garden on the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area, Oregon. A similar small-scale project using propagules of Idaho fescue and 12 other native species was initiated at Jenkin's Creek Park, Washington, in 1989 [8]. Thomas and Gamon [267] had good success establishing Idaho fescue on a restoration project in western Washington (< 10% mortality of planted seedlings). Meier and Weaver [189] provide detailed information on roadside rehabilitation and suggest that Idaho fescue establishes well. Additional guidelines for planting can be found in several publications [246,292,295].

OTHER USES AND VALUES:
No entry

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Grazing can stimulate plant vitality and play a beneficial role in community stability; the key is timely grazing of plants and moderate use of the community [144]. The amount of use that Idaho fescue can sustain without adversely affecting vigor is dependent on numerous conditions including the combination of livestock and wildlife using the range, plant phenology, the type of grazing system used, competition from associated vegetation, plant vigor at the time of use, and site conditions [205]. Mueggler [204] found maximum leaf length was a good indicator of vigor in Idaho fescue, but noted that because of yearly variations in weather conditions, evaluation of vigor requires comparison with protected plants of normal vigor. Many approaches to determining vigor for Idaho fescue have been used, sometimes with contradictory results. Mueggler and Stewart [205] concluded that the only reliable approach was to observe the response of the vegetation over a period of years.

Idaho fescue is a decreaser under heavy grazing by livestock [95,96,141,301] and wildlife [107]. Several studies have reported Idaho fescue as less abundant on areas grazed by livestock compared to ungrazed areas [96,141,185,291,294,310]. Olson and Wallander [213] found root and shoot biomass were 38 and 27% less on grazed than on ungrazed plants, while carbohydrate pools were similar for grazed and ungrazed plants. In contrast, spotted knapweed biomass was unchanged by grazing; suggesting that repeated grazing may reduce the ability of Idaho fescue to compete with invading spotted knapweed when both species are grazed [213]. Merrill and others [191] found that at the end of the growing season, standing dead material on Idaho fescue plants was less in cattle-grazed sites than on ungrazed sites; however, standing Idaho fescue biomass and crown biomass were equal on grazed and ungrazed sites. In an exclosure study including Idaho fescue sites in Wyoming and Montana, Stohlgren and others [259] report that Idaho fescue showed inconsistent responses to grazing. Other studies show similar, equivocal responses [199,304,305]. In northwest Wyoming, Jones [149] found Idaho fescue decreased under cattle grazing but remained relatively unchanged by elk grazing.

In Yellowstone National Park, Coughenour and others [65] found no differences in Idaho fescue cover in exclosed and unexclosed range. Also in Yellowstone National Park, vegetative culms of Idaho fescue were shorter on areas grazed by elk and bison than culms on ungrazed areas. Grazing did not affect the number of vegetative culms or the height or number of reproductive culms of grasses [250]. Dead bunchgrass clumps (expected on an overgrazed range) did not vary between grazed and ungrazed sites. Grass biomass was lower on grazed sites in 1986, the drier year, but not different in 1987 [250].

Northern pocket gopher activity can aggravate impacts of grazing livestock and can prevent the return of Idaho fescue on overgrazed ranges [264,265]. Idaho fescue decreases as northern pocket gopher activity increases [301], and can give way to Bromus and other undesirable species [185,310]. The dense roots of Idaho fescue are not preferred forage of northern pocket gophers. They may protect other plants growing among them [252], preventing occupation by northern pocket gophers where turf is intact [265].  

Anderson and Scherzinger [7] report improvement of range for elk with cattle grazing through a detailed resource management system. Preconditioning in this manner has been reported to extend the grazing season and improve production of viable seed in Idaho fescue [6]. Anderson and others [6] measured a 38% increase in Idaho fescue cover after grazing by elk for 24 years, thereby re-establishing habitat for blue grouse. Late-seral grasslands dominated by Idaho fescue may provide the best forage for grass-eating ruminants, but mid-seral stages of Idaho fescue associations may offer more to all users of grasslands due to their greater plant species diversity [144]. 

Bunchgrasses best tolerate light grazing after seed formation [43,195]. Britton and others [38] observed the effects of harvest date on basal area of 5 bunchgrasses in eastern Oregon, including Idaho fescue, and found grazing from August to October (after seed set) has the least impact on these bunchgrasses, while plants harvested in May showed a 40% reduction in basal area, due primarily to reductions in Idaho fescue and Thurber needlegrass (Achnatherum thurberianum). Idaho fescue is most sensitive to defoliation from flowering to seed ripening [144,195,202]. Johnson and Simon [146] suggest avoiding early grazing that will deter seed formation. Johnston and others [148] discusses "dates of readiness for grazing" for fescue grassland, using seed set as an important indicator. Beetle [20] found Idaho fescue could withstand moderate, continuous grazing on sedimentary soils, but even light grazing reduced its vigor on granitic soils [205]. The greatest modification of Idaho fescue communities in the Blue Mountains of Oregon occurs with several consecutive seasons of early spring grazing, when soils are often wet and trampling can dislodge plants [145]. 

Abundant information exists on different grazing systems and management approaches for Idaho fescue grasslands [90,95,165,205,276,311]. Idaho fescue is favored by light to moderate grazing [72,108,246] and is moderately resistant to trampling [60,246]. Heavy grazing may lead to replacement of Idaho fescue with alien species such as cheatgrass [43,207,246], and can adversely affect soil fertility [147]. 

Control of associated woody species tends to improve yield and diversity of Idaho fescue communities [50,94,194,196,200,207,262]. Mueggler [203] found reducing competition through tilling and clipping more than offset the effects of even extreme clipping (100% herbage removal at flowering) on the volume of herbage and number of flowerstalks produced the following year in Idaho fescue plants. Overstory removal in ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir communities leads to an increase in yield and abundance of Idaho fescue [184,197]. Three summers of domestic sheep grazing to reduce spotted knapweed led to an increase in Idaho fescue plant density, although leaves and flowerstems on these plants were shorter than in ungrazed areas [214].  

At the edge of its ecological range (e.g., where it occurs with Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) in Oregon), Idaho fescue may be very sensitive to heavy livestock utilization [88]. The big sagebrush ecosystem is particularly sensitive to grazing, and bunchgrasses decrease rapidly with severe defoliation [100]. Mueggler [204] studied the recovery rate of Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass after heavy and extreme clipping and found that Idaho fescue plants of moderately low vigor required about 3 years of protection to recover normal vigor. He estimated that recovery from a state of low vigor might take more than 6 years of protection.

Two cultivars of Idaho fescue have been developed that are adapted to variable climatic and soil conditions in the Intermountain west and Pacific Northwest where precipitation ranges from 14-31 inches (350-770 mm).  They are cold and drought hardy, moderately shade tolerant, grow well in ponderosa pine/big sagebrush, and persist on shallow, gravelly to well-drained soils [101].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT

Seeds are produced in all but the driest years [111], but the percentage of viable seeds varies greatly from year to year [54]. Low seed viability may coincide with low seed fill, which can indicate poor overall development [56]. Although Johnston and others [148] found no relationship between plant basal area and the number of seeds produced in Idaho fescue on Alberta prairie topsoil, they did find that plants not summer-grazed by cattle produced larger seed crops than grazed plants. 

Chambers [54] observed a 13, 32, and 53% decrease in seed viability over 1, 2, and 3 years, respectively. Goodwin and others [110] found Idaho fescue seed requires after-ripening. The after-ripening period assures that at least 35% of the seed crop remains dormant for 6 months following dispersal - a strategy that promotes germination after winter precipitation has usually recharged soil moisture. Goodwin and others [111] found percent germination of Idaho fescue seed is related to soil water potential, with fewer seeds germinating at higher water stress levels. Smyth [254] presents evidence of seedbanking in Idaho fescue in British Columbia. Seed dispersal is limited to the immediate vicinity of the plant.

Tillering in Idaho fescue arises from a relatively small budding zone within a compact root crown area [62]. In cases of disturbance in which the root crowns of Idaho fescue survive, tillering may result in a rapid increase in size of Idaho fescue plants in non-competitive environments [145,209].

In the grasslands of the Intermountain region, Idaho fescue occurs in valleys, canyons, benches, slopes, and rolling hills bordering sagebrush/grasslands, juniper woodlands, or the lower treeline [36,77,117,187,219]. It is most commonly found in mesic grasslands, but is also a component of the more xeric grasslands dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass, where it usually occupies the cooler, moister microsites on north and east aspects [88,117,159,271]. It can be found on south-facing slopes at higher elevations [120]. It is found on a variety of parent materials and soil depths, but is most productive on well-drained, loamy to sandy soils [120,205]. In a western Montana grassland on morainal mounds in the upper Blackfoot Valley, Idaho fescue tolerated the widest extremes of environmental conditions present, though it did show a gradual decrease on south and southwest exposures of the mounds [31]. In the biscuit scablands (areas of rolling topography on basic flow lavas with "biscuits" of soil between islands of very shallow soil over lava) in eastern Oregon, Idaho fescue grows in the cool moist microsites of the biscuits [120,315].

In semi-arid sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) grasslands, Idaho fescue is found with bluebunch wheatgrass but is restricted to the cooler, moister sites [5,28,46,71,92,93,120,313,316], and tends to be found on deeper, well-drained, loamy to sandy textured soils [25,26,71,122,237]. Idaho fescue occurs as a dominant or co-dominant species on cool, moist microsites protected from wind, where there is more snow retention and less moisture loss than on less protected sites [73,294]. In a study of soil properties in big and low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula) communities in southern Idaho, Fosberg and Hironaka [105] concluded that moisture availability was more important than parent material in determining the distribution of bluebunch wheatgrass and Idaho fescue. When compared with 5 common grasses in the Great Basin (bluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber needlegrass, needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipa comata), galleta (Pleuraphis jamesii), and Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass were associated with soils in wetter and colder climates and with a slightly more acidic pH, higher water-holding capacity, higher clay contents, and lower bulk density than soils of other grasses. Idaho fescue had the narrowest environmental tolerances [223]. Johnson [144] says that moisture availability (which is enhanced by deeper soils and cooler microsites) determines the ability of Idaho fescue to persist at lower elevations.

Everett [103] examined the possibility of allelopathic effects of singleleaf pinyon and Utah juniper litter on seedling emergence of Idaho fescue, and found that the presence of litter can be a negative factor if seed is buried. Where Idaho fescue occurs in forest habitats with limber pine, ponderosa pine, and Douglas-fir, it is usually on the cool, dry aspects that border sagebrush-grass communities [120,186,221,256].

In the northern Rocky Mountains, Idaho fescue also occurs in mountain parks at upper elevations where tree growth is inhibited [77,79,170,193,216,225,235]. Daubenmire [75,80] speculates that the occurrence of these small parks in northern Idaho and eastern Washington represents areas of soil drought that may have resulted from the transfer of snow from the windward to the leeward slopes. Jensen [143] cites Idaho fescue as 1 of the major grasses at 4,950-9,900 feet (1500-3000 m) on Caribou National Forest, southeastern Idaho. On these sites, moisture becomes limiting soon after snowpack melts, producing drought conditions that dominate through most summer months on predominantly cold, cryic soils. Weaver and Collins [297] found Idaho fescue decreased in abundance with increasing snowpack in Montana. Several authors [21,63,85,120,141,220,225,245] have described alpine and subalpine communities with Idaho fescue as an important, sometimes dominant, component in several western states. Idaho fescue is the dominant understory species on many of the most arid whitebark pine sites [13,256].    

Mollisols are most commonly associated with grassland ecosystems; however, Nimlos and Tomer [211] found Mollisols under dry end Douglas-fir forests in southwest Montana, usually on sites where Idaho fescue is among the understory grass component. These sites may have been grasslands that were invaded by conifers. Similarly, the absence of Idaho fescue on unproductive Mollisols may indicate a disclimax where Idaho fescue has been eliminated by disturbance.

Idaho fescue occurs in the following elevational ranges:

In cases where the level of disturbance is such that cover of Idaho fescue decreases (e.g., heavy grazing pressure or severe fire), Idaho fescue succeeds to various native and non-native increaser species. Some examples are bluegrasses (Poa spp.) [171,279,294], sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) [205,310], rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) and broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae) [310], needlegrasses (Achnatherum and Hesperostipa spp.), lupine (Lupinus spp.) [53,146,205], phlox (Phlox spp.)[53,145,205,278], spotted knapweed [205,279,280], yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) [232], timothy (Phleum pratense) [279], and cheatgrass [171,205,224].

Mueggler [206] compared dates of phenological events for prominent grasses at 7,100 feet (2130 m) on southwestern and northeastern exposures in western Montana over 10 years. The start of growth was uncertain because green leaves were frequently present at the time of snowmelt, probably because they overwintered from fall regrowth. The following dates were recorded for phenology of Idaho fescue on southwestern exposures [206]:

FIRE ECOLOGY

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

Native ranges and forests in which Idaho fescue occurs have historically been subjected to fires at varying intervals. Native Americans were probably an important ignition source in prehistoric Idaho fescue grasslands [2]. Maintenance of grasslands in the Intermountain West is dependent, in part, on periodic fires to remove dry matter and invading shrubs and trees [9,12,47,49,159,216]. A decrease in or loss of dominant seral species such as Idaho fescue due to fire exclusion has been noted in many areas [113].    

FIRE REGIMES:
The following table provides some fire regime intervals for communities in which Idaho fescue occurs. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

FIRE EFFECTS

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Idaho fescue on burned areas may have more protein than those on unburned areas [16]. Singer and Harter [248] found that digestibility of Idaho fescue was enhanced (for 1 year) on grazed but not on ungrazed sites following the 1988 fires in Yellowstone National Park. Dry matter digestibility was higher in Idaho fescue plants the 1^st year following burning in Yellowstone, and both digestibility and percent protein were higher the 2^nd year [212]. Similarly, crude protein in Idaho fescue increased from 0.6 to 2.6% after spring burning in Douglas-fir and limber pine in central Montana [156]. 

Idaho fescue is sensitive to severe burns in late summer and early fall in eastern Oregon [146]. Such fires favor succession to forbs in Idaho fescue plant associations [2]. Both number of plants and basal crown area were severely reduced in Idaho fescue following an August wildfire on northern California perennial range and remained reduced 5 years later [66]. A hot June wildfire in a Montana grassland reduced biomass and cover of Idaho fescue. The damaged clumps failed to produce much autumn growth, so Idaho fescue cover remained low in the following spring in favor of forb species. Idaho fescue recovered completely (98% of unburned cover) 3 years after the fire [9]. Spring and late fall burns on sites with good soil moisture and favorable Idaho fescue root reserves are thought to injure plants less [16,309,314]. Britton and others [37] observed greater plant damage with late August than mid-October burning; however, they also found that plants watered immediately before or after burning had the greatest basal area reduction and produced the least re-growth. They explained that with increasing water content, thermal conductivity increases, and therefore the potential for the heat pulse to reach the grass' meristematic tissue faster and remain at lethal temperatures longer exists when soils are wet. 

Idaho fescue is tolerant of late-season burning [2,3,308], but again, results are varied. Armour and others [10] saw recovery to preburn levels of Idaho fescue in 3 years after fall prescribed burning in Douglas-fir/ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus) habitat type in Idaho. Britton and Clark [40] compared early May, mid-June, and mid-October burns in eastern Oregon and found highest mortality in early May (30%), and no mortality in mid-June or mid-October. Corresponding basal area reductions were 48% in May, 52% in June, and 34% in October [40]. A comparison of spring and fall burning in Idaho fescue grassland in Oregon showed no difference for season of burn [277]. A significant (p<0.05) decrease in Idaho fescue cover occurred in both seasons, although frequency was not reduced, and Idaho fescue remained the dominant prairie species [277]. Conversely, Shwecke and Hann [243] observed 25% kill of Idaho fescue after a spring burn, compared with 40% kill after a fall burn, in a Douglas-fir and big sagebrush/grass mosaic in western Montana. There was a similar decrease in basal crown sizes for both burns, but the canopy cover of surviving fescue (Festuca spp.) plants almost doubled compared to prefire canopy cover. Sagebrush sites became dominated by fescues 1 year after fire in both cases [243]. Another comparison of spring and fall burning found that fall burning killed 20% of the Idaho fescue population and reduced basal area by 23% the 1^st year. Spring burning resulted in no significant change in basal area and only 3.5% mortality. Plants recovered to 90% of their preburn size by the 2^nd year after the fall burn [238]. Idaho fescue is sensitive to burning in any season in areas where it is at the margins of its ecological range [27,62,309]. 

Fire in water-limited environments generally reduces the productivity of grasses during the 1st postfire growing season [27,74,231,307], and in many cases reduces productivity of Idaho fescue for several years to come [125]. Defosse and Robberecht [84] used a special device to apply similar fire severity levels inside the meristematic root crown region to several Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass plants and followed the treatment with different levels of competition simulated by removing varying amounts of aboveground biomass of neighboring potential competitors. Idaho fescue did show meristematic damage after the fire, but no mortality was observed. Regrowth occurred within 15 days - more rapidly than bluebunch wheatgrass. Subsequent competition reduced root production and restricted aboveground productivity by 115% in Idaho fescue, and by 70% for bluebunch wheatgrass. These results suggest that survival and productivity following fires is related to subsequent soil water availability. A species with roots concentrated in upper soil layers (e.g., Idaho fescue) will experience a decline of water availability when compared with a deeper rooted species (e.g., bluebunch wheatgrass), thus affecting subsequent growth [84]. This may help explain why many studies show that Idaho fescue is more severely damaged by fire than bluebunch wheatgrass [2]. 

Conrad and Poulton [62] observed that Idaho fescue basal diameter reduction was less after fire in grazed conditions (27%) than in ungrazed conditions (40%). Idaho fescue basal area was reduced equally by burning and clipping (an average of 48%) in May and June in eastern Oregon [39]. Other treatment-date combinations (late summer and fall) did not significantly (p<0.05) reduce basal area, suggesting that it is less susceptible to late-season defoliation than reported previously.

Recovery of Idaho fescue frequency is also a function of seed production and germination after a fire. Sapsis [238] found higher numbers of vegetative culms in burned plants compared with unburned plants. Seed production of Idaho fescue plants subjected to fall prescribed burning in the sagebrush/grassland region in Idaho and Oregon was not different from seed production on unburned controls in postfire years 1 and 3, but was greater on a 5-year-old burn [217]. Both severe and lower-severity fire treatments reduce emergence of Idaho fescue from seed [57]. Warg [294] cites a study in which seeds of Idaho fescue are exposed to temperatures of 80, 100, 125, and 150 ^oC for periods of 5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes. Germination was good for seeds exposed to 80, 100 and 125 ^oC for 5 minutes, but did not occur beyond that temperature or time period. Clark and others [59] studied the effects of fire on seed banks and found the LD 50 for most seeds was between 70 to 85 ^oC.

In a basin big sagebrush community in east-central Oregon, mean density and basal area of Idaho fescue was significantly greater on fall-burned plots (P<0.1) than on spring-burned and control plots. However, Idaho fescue mortality was less on spring- than fall-burned plots, and Idaho fescue produced more flowering culms on spring-burned compared to control plots [238]. See the Research Project Summary of this work for more information on fire effects on Idaho fescue and 60 additional grass, forb, and woody plant species.

On ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir communities in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, Idaho fescue cover and frequency in postfire year 4 were higher on prescribed burned sites than on thinned, thinned-and-burned, or unburned control sites. Idaho fescue was determined to be an indicator species for burned sites (P≤0.05).  For further information on the effects of thinning and burning treatments on Idaho fescue and 48 other species, see the Research Project Summary of Youngblood and others' [317] study.

The following other Research Project Summaries also provide information on prescribed fire use and postfire response of Idaho fescue and other plant community species:

• Understory recovery after low- and high-intensity fires in northern Idaho ponderosa pine forests
• Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests of western Montana

Bunting and others [45] concluded that postfire plant mortality and productivity might be related to the length of time grazing is excluded during postfire regeneration period. Early spring fire alone resulted in low mortality, and early season defoliation (simulated grazing) after fire resulted in 50 % mortality for Idaho fescue. Detrimental effects were lessened when defoliation was delayed by 1 growing season after fire [45]. In a big sagebrush/grassland in Idaho burned once in September of 1933, again in August of 1936, and subsequently "conservatively" grazed after 1 full year of protection, Blaisdell [27] observed no significant differences in total grass production on any severity of burn 15 years after burning. Idaho fescue was, however, significantly reduced, achieving prefire levels within 12 years after a light-severity burn, and at only 77 and 53% of prefire levels 12 years after a moderate and heavy burn, respectively. All other grasses had recovered beyond prefire levels by postfire year [27]. 

Festuca idahoensis: References

1. Adams, Glenn R. 1980. Results of range/wildlife prescribed burning on the Fort Rock Ranger District in central Oregon. R-6 Fuels Management Notes. September 24, 1980. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Aviation and Fire Management. 6 p. [292]

2. Agee, James K. 1996. Fire in the Blue Mountains: a history, ecology, and research agenda. In: Jaindl, R. G.; Quigley, T. M., eds. Search for a solution: sustaining the land, people and economy of the Blue Mountains. Washington, DC: American Forests: 119-145. [28827]

3. Agee, James K.; Maruoka, Kathleen R. 1994. Historical fire regimes of the Blue Mountains. BMNRI-TN-1. La Grande, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Blue Mountains Natural Resources Institute. 4 p. [23867]

4. Alexander, Robert R. 1988. Forest vegetation on National Forests in the Rocky Mountain and Intermountain Regions: habitat and community types. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-162. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 47 p. [5903]

5. Anderson, E. William. 1956. Some soil-plant relationships in eastern Oregon. Journal of Range Management. 9(4): 171-175. [314]

6. Anderson, E. William; Franzen, David L.; Melland, Jack E. 1990. Forage quality as influenced by prescribed grazing. In: Severson, Keith E., tech. coord. Can livestock be used as a tool to enhance wildlife habitat?: Proceedings, 43rd annual meeting of the Society for Range. Management; 1990 February 13; Reno, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-194. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 56-70. [15999]

7. Anderson, E. William; Scherzinger, Richard J. 1975. Improving quality of winter forage for elk by cattle grazing. Journal of Range Management. 28(2): 120-125. [316]

8. Antieau, Clayton J.; Gaynor, Peggy E. 1990. Native grassland restoration and creation in western Washington. Restoration & Management Notes. 8(1): 34-35. [14166]

9. Antos, Joseph A.; McCune, Bruce; Bara, Cliff. 1983. The effect of fire on an ungrazed western Montana grassland. The American Midland Naturalist. 110(2): 354-364. [337]

10. Armour, Charles D.; Bunting, Stephen C.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. [n.d.]. The effect of fire intensity on understory vegetational development. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 17 p. [30855]

11. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]

12. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1986. Douglas-fir encroachment into mountain grasslands in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 272-276. [343]

13. Arno, Stephen F.; Hoff, Raymond J. 1990. Pinus albicaulis Engelm. whitebark pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 268-279. [13390]

14. Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. 1986. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 241-243. [350]

15. Barrington, Mac; Bunting, Steve; Wright, Gerald. 1988. A fire management plan for Craters of the Moon National Monument. Cooperative Agreement CA-9000-8-0005. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Range Resources Department. 52 p. Draft. [1687]

16. Beardall, Louis E.; Sylvester, Vern E. 1976. Spring burning for removal of sagebrush competition in Nevada. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 539-547. [406]

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