Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Elymus repens
Introductory
SPECIES: Elymus repens
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Elymus repens. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/graminoid/elyrep/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
ELYREP
SYNONYMS :
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.
Elytrigia repens (L.) Desv. ex Nevski [4]
SCS PLANT CODE :
AGRE2
COMMON NAMES :
quackgrass
couchgrass
witchgrass
quitchgrass
quickgrass
chiendent
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name for quackgrass is Elymus
repens (L.) Gould (Poaceae) [51]. One variety
and six forms have been recognized [18]. Short descriptions will follow
each here, rather than in GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
Form Glume Lemma Rachis
E. r. aristatum oblong awned smooth
E. r. trichorrhachis oblong blunt hairy
E. r. pilosum oblong awned hairy
E. r. vaillantianum lanceolate awned smooth
E. r. heberhachis lanceolate blunt hairy
E. r. setiferum lanceolate awned hairy
E. r. var. subulatum lanceolate blunt smooth
In the laboratory, quackgrass has been successfully crossed with the
following species [2,18]:
E. r. x E. arenaurius = Agroelymus adamsii Rousseau
E. r. x Pseudoroegneria spicata
E. r. x Agropyron cristatum.
LIFE FORM :
Graminoid
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Elymus repens
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Quackgrass is widely distributed across North America: from coast to
coast, south to the southwestern border states and north to Alaska [44].
It is also widespread throughout eastern Canada [18]. Because
quackgrass does not tolerate long, hot summers it is absent from the
Gulf Coast States (except northern Texas) [36].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
STATES :
AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE HI ID IL
IN IA KS KY ME MD MA MI MN MO
MT NE NV NH NJ NM NY NC ND OH
OK OR PA RI SD TN TX UT VT VA
WA WV WI WY NF NS ON PQ
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Peidmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - beedlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K100 Oak - hickory forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
27 Sugar maple
19 Grey birch - red maple
51 White pine - chestnut oak
55 Northern red oak
108 Red maple
208 Whitebark pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
NO-ENTRY
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Elymus repens
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Quackgrass provides cover for numerous small rodents, birds, and
waterfowl [30,45].
PALATABILITY :
Many palatable hybrid crosses of quackgrass and other species have been
developed and planted for livestock [2]. Feeding trials in Minnesota
showed that a quackgrass biotype was as palatable as alfalfa (Medicago
spp.) [37]. In cattle grazing trials in Montana, preference was shown
for some clonal lines of a quackgrass-bluebunch wheatgrass
(Pseudoroegneria spicata) cross [46].
The degree of use shown by livestock for quackgrass in five western
states has been rated as follows [14]:
CO MT ND UT WY
cattle good good good good good
sheep fair fair fair good fair
horses good good good good good.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Quackgrass has been rated fair in energy value and poor in protein value
[14]. However, food value studies in Minnesota showed that quackgrass
had as much crude protein as alfalfa during May [37]. These authors
list concentrations of 10 minerals found in quackgrass in Minnesota.
Results of Alaskan studies showed that quackgrass did not contain enough
magnesium required for ruminant digestion nor did it have a high mineral
content. However, digestibility was 64 percent and greater in three
harvest trials [38].
COVER VALUE :
The degree to which quackgrass provides cover for wildlife has been
rated as follows [14]:
MT ND UT
small mammals good fair good
small nongame birds fair good fair
upland game birds good good fair
waterfowl good good fair
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Quackgrass has been used to revegetate mine tailings in Nova Scotia
[48]. A quackgrass/Fairway crested wheatgrass hybrid may be useful for
revegetating mine spoils and roadsides [2].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Although quackgrass is considered an undesirable weed species it is
often crossed with other wheatgrasses (Agropryon spp.) to create hybrids
for grazing [2,6]. It can be controlled with chemicals such as
glyphosate, dichlobenil, and fauzifop [50]. Sometimes, however,
chemicals are not effective. In Wisconsin, 2,4-D applied to quackgrass
caused a slight increase in quackgrass cover and no effect on stem
density [23]. In Midwestern prairies, mowing and raking significantly
reduced quackgrass biomass and prevented flowering the following growing
season [13]. Mowing, burning, and chemical application combined may be
the best way to eradicate quackgrass [33].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Elymus repens
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Quackgrass is a cool-season, exotic, perennial, rhizomatous graminoid.
Its stems are erect, decumbent, and may reach heights of 1 to 3 feet
(0.3-1 m) but more commonly grow to 0.25 to 1 inch (0.5-2 cm) high
[18,21]. Quackgrass is green to whitish, with hirsute to nonhirsute
leaves and awned or nonawned lemmas [18,26]. Rhizomes can grow 23
inches (60 cm) or more from the main shoot before sending out stems [36]
and grow as deep as 8 inches (20 cm) [26]. Dahlberg [12] described how
to identify seeds of the Agropyron genus to distinguish between
desirable and undesirable species.
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Chamaephyte
Geophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Quackgrass propagates mainly by rhizomes but also reproduces by seed.
Seed production, however, is reported to be as low as 25 viable seeds
per plant per season [36]. Studies in Alaska showed that seed viability
may vary depending on how deep and long the seeds have been buried;
viablity is reduced significantly after burial for 21 months [10]. In
greenhouse trials, dormancy of seeds buried 6 inches (15 cm) deep was 16
percent, while dormancy of seeds buried 0.8 inch (2 cm) deep was only 5
percent [9]. Cross-pollination is necessary for seed production [44].
Dormancy in rhizome buds has been related to nitrogen deficiencies,
which peak in June [8]. Sod mats can be as dense as 367 meters of
rhizomes per square meter [36].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Quackgrass invades gardens, yards, crop fields, roadsides, ditches, and
just about any disturbed, moist area [21]. It invades mixed-grass
prairies as well as oak (Quercus spp.)-hickory (Carya spp.) and
whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) forests [1,24,49]. It can tolerate
some saline conditions in the low-lying valleys of Utah [26].
Salt-tolerant cultivars have been developed by crossing quackgrass with
bluebunch wheatgrass [42]. Elevational range in four western states
follows [14]:
State Elevation
Utah 5,100-8,200 feet (1,554-2,499 m)
Colorado 4,800-10,000 feet (1,463-3,048 m)
Wyoming 4,500-8,000 feet (1,372-2,438 m)
Montana 5,000-6,600 feet (1,524-2,012 m)
Some associate species of quackgrass include sedge (Carex spp.), bulrush
(Scirpus spp.), rush (Juncus spp.), bluebunch wheatgrass, crested
wheatgrass, red top (Agrostis alba), indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans),
bluestems (Andropogon spp., Schizachyrium spp.), smooth brome (Bromus
inermis), poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), panic grass (Panicum
spp.), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), common ragweed (Ambrosia
artemisiifolia), prairie pepperweed (Lepidium densiflorum), prairie
dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense),
Carolina geranium (Geranium carolinianum), and bracken fern (Pteridium
aquilinum) [1,5,11,15,24,26,28].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Quackgrass is an early seral dominant in disturbed areas [15,22,27].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Quackgrass flowers from June through August in Colorado, Wyoming, and
Montana; and from June through July in North Dakota [14].
Optimum temperatures for growth are between 68 and 77 degrees Fahrenheit
(20 and 25 deg C), with no growth occurring above 95 degrees Fahrenheit
(35 deg C) or below 35 degrees Fahrenheit (2 deg C) [16,36]. Primary
rhizome growth begins in late May or early June and then again in
September and October [36]. Rhizome growth seems to be favored by low
temperatures [50 deg F(10 deg C)] and long days (18 hours) [36].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Elymus repens
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Quackgrass is adapted to certain seasonal fires because of its rhizomes.
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Elymus repens
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Late spring fires generally reduce quackgrass cover, flowering and
biomass, while early spring fires can increase these.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
A May burn in oak savannas of Wisconsin significantly reduced quackgrass
and halted flowering [13]. Similar results (reduction in biomass and
cover) have been shown for other areas [23,28]. Burning quackgrass on a
biennial schedule for several years has been effective in eradicating
this species [1,3].
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Quackgrass cover can increase following fire.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
Five annual late April to early May burns in Minnesota resulted in a
decrease in quackgrass height but an increase in cover [5]. Plant vigor
was reduced and flowering stopped, but quackgrass continued to spread
into adjacent areas. At the time of the April burns, plant height was
between 3.9 and 5.9 inches (10-15 cm), and during the May burn, heights
were between 5.9 and 9.8 inches (15-25 cm). May and June burns on North
Dakota grasslands "harmed" quackgrass in the first postburn season, but
quackgrass recovered to almost preburn levels by the second postburn
season. Following the late June fire, quackgrass showed a slight
increase in cover, height, shoot density, production, and flowering
[39]. Wisconsin grassland fires in March caused an increase in seed
production by July and August [23].
The Research Project Summary, Herbaceous responses to seasonal burning in
experimental tallgrass prairie plots provides information on postfire response
of quackgrass in experimental prairie plots that was not available when this
species review was originally written.
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Cool-season grasses such quackgrass are best eliminated with early
spring burns [20,31,34]. Cool-season grasses can grow in the fall
following summer dormancy; therefore, fall burns might also help reduce
undesirable cool-season grasses [41].
References for species: Elymus repens
1. Anderson, Roger C. 1973. The use of fire as a management tool on the Curtis prairie. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1972 June 8-9; Lubbock, TX. Number 12. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 23-35. [8461]
2. Asay, K. H. 1983. Promising new grasses for range seedings. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Shaw, Nancy, compilers, Managing Intermountain rangelands--improvement of range and wildlife habitats: Proceedings of symposia; 1981 September 15-17; Twin Falls, ID; 1982 June 22-24; Elko, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-157. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 110-115. [356]
3. Bailey, Arthur W. 1978. Effects of fire on the mixed prairie vegetation. In: Proceedings: Prairie prescribed burning symposium and workshop; 1978 April 25-28; Jamestown, ND. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: [5 pages]. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [3598]
4. Barkworth, Mary E.; Dewey, Douglas R. 1985. Genomically based genera in the perennial Triticeae of North America: identification and membership. American Journal of Botany. 72(5): 767-776. [393]
5. Becker, Donald A. 1989. Five years of annual prairie burns. In: Bragg, Thomas A.; Stubbendieck, James, eds. Prairie pioneers: ecology, history and culture: Proceedings, 11th North American prairie conference; 1988 August 7-11; Lincoln, NE. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska: 163-168. [14037]
6. Beetle, Alan A. 1955. Wheatgrasses of Wyoming. Bull. 336. Laramie, WY: Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station. 24 p. [415]
7. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
8. Chancellor, R. J. 1974. The development of dominance amongst shoots arising from fragments of Agropyron repens rhizomes. Weed Research. 14: 29-38. [16858]
9. Conn, Jeffery S. 1990. Seed viability and dormancy of 17 weed species after burial for 4.7 years in Alaska. Weed Science. 38: 134-138. [11815]
10. Conn, Jeffery S.; Farris, Martha L. 1987. Seed viability and dormancy of 17 weed species after 21 months in Alaska. Weed Science. 35: 524-529; 1987. [5]
11. Crow, T. R.; Mroz, G. D.; Gale, M. R. 1991. Regrowth and nutrient accumulations following whole-tree harvesting of a maple-oak forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 1305-1315. [16600]
12. Dahlberg, Robert C. 1914. Identification of the seeds of species of Agropyron. Journal of Agricultural Research. 3(3): 275-289. [4147]
13. Diboll, Neil. 1986. Mowing as an alternative to spring burning for control of cool season exotic grasses in prairie grass plantings. In: Clambey, Gary K.; Pemble, Richard H., eds. The prairie: past, present and future: Proceedings, 9th North American prairie conference; 1984 July 29 - August 1; Moorhead, MN. Fargo, ND: Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies: 204-209. [3574]
14. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
15. Dziadyk, Bohdan; Clambey, Gary K. 1983. Floristic composition of plant communities in a western Minnesota tallgrass prairie. In: Kucera, Clair L., ed. Proceedings, 7th North American prairie conference; 1980 August 4-6; Springfield, MO. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri: 45-54. [3194]
16. Evans, Raymond A.; Young, James A. 1987. Seedbed microenvironment, seedling recruitment, and plant establishment on rangelands. In: Frasier, Gary W.; Evans, Raymond A., eds. Proceedings of symposium: "Seed and seedbed ecology of rangeland plants"; 1987 April 21-23; Tucson, AZ. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service: 212-220. [3354]
17. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
18. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 1632 p. (Dudley, Theodore R., gen. ed.; Biosystematics, Floristic & Phylogeny Series; vol. 2) [14935]
19. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
20. Glenn-Lewin, David C.; Johnson, Louise A.; Jurik, Thomas W.; [and others]. 1990. Fire in central North American grasslands: vegetative reproduction, seed germination, and seedling establishment. In: Collins, Scott L.; Wallace, Linda L., eds. Fire in North American tallgrass prairies. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press: 28-45. [14194]
21. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
22. Gross, Katherine L.; Werner, Patricia A. 1982. Colonizing abilities of "biennial" plant species in relation to ground cover: implications for their distributions in a successional sere. Ecology. 63(4): 921-931. [12143]
23. Halvorsen, Harvey H.; Anderson, Raymond K. 1983. Evaluation of grassland management for wildlife in central Wisconsin. In: Kucera, Clair L., ed. Proceedings, 7th North American prairie conference; 1980 August 4-6; Springfield, MO. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri: 267-279. [3228]
24. Henderson, Richard A. 1986. Response of seedling and sapling trees to a spring fire in a Wisconsin oak opening. In: Koonce, Andrea L., ed. Prescribed burning in the Midwest: state-of-the-art: Proceedings of a symposium; 1986 March 3-6; Stevens Point, WI. Stevens Point, WI: University of Wisconsin, College of Natural Resources, Fire Science Center: 81-85. [16272]
25. Hitchcock, A. S. 1951. Manual of the grasses of the United States. Misc. Publ. No. 200. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration. 1051 p. [2nd edition revised by Agnes Chase in two volumes. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.]. [1165]
26. Holmgren, Arthur H. 1958. Weeds of Utah. Special Report 12. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 85 p. [2935]
27. Huang, Chih-Lin; del Moral, Roger. 1988. Plant-environment relationships on the Montlake wildlife area, Seattle, Washington, USA. Vegetatio. 75: 103-113. [9742]
28. Hughes, H. Glenn. 1985. Vegetation responses to spring burning in an improved pasture in central Pennsylvania. In: Long, James N., ed. Fire management: the challenge of protection and use: Proceedings of a symposium; 1985 April 17-19; Logan, UT. [Place of publication unknown]. [Publisher unknown]. 3-9. [3033]
29. Kauffman, J. Boone; Krueger, W. C.; Vavra, M. 1983. Effects of late season cattle grazing on riparian plant communities. Journal of Range Management. 36(6): 685-691. [16965]
30. Kirsch, Leo M.; Higgins, Kenneth F. 1976. Upland sandpiper nesting and management in North Dakota. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 4(1): 16-20. [14949]
31. Kucera, Clair L. 1981. Grasslands and fire. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; [and others], technical coordinators. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 90-111. [4389]
32. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
33. Liegel, Konrad; Lyon, Jonathon. 1986. Prairie restoration program at the International Crane Foundation. In: Clambey, Gary K.; Pemble, Richard H., eds. The prairie: past, present and future: Proceedings, 9th North American prairie conference; 1984 July 29 - August 1; Moorhead, MN. Fargo, ND: Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies: 190-194. [3567]
34. Linne, James M. 1978. BLM guidelines for prairie/plains plant communities to incorporate fire use/management into activity plans and fire use plans. In: Fire management: Prairie plant communities: Proceedings of a symposium and workshop; 1978 April 25-28: Jamestown, ND. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: I-1 to IV-2. [Sponsored by: North Dakota Chapter of The Wildlife Society; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management; Fire in Multiple Use Management RD&A Program; and others]. [3600]
35. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
36. Majek, Bradley A.; Erickson, Clair; Duke, William B. 1984. Tillage effects and environmental influences on quackgrass (Agropyron repens) rhizome growth. Weed Science. 32(3): 376-381. [17590]
37. Marten, G. C.; Sheaffer, C. C.; Wyse, D. L. 1987. Forage nutritive value and palatability of perennial weeds. Agronomy Journal. 79: 980-986. [3449]
38. Mitchell, W. W. 1982. Forage yield and quality of indigenous and introduced grasses at Palmer, Alaska. Agronomy Journal. 74: 899-905. [16172]
39. Olson, Wendell W. 1975. Effects of controlled burning on grassland within the Tewaukon National Wildlife Refuge. Fargo, ND: North Dakota University of Agriculture and Applied Science. 137 p. Thesis. [15252]
40. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
41. Risser, P. G.; Birney, E. C.; Blocker, H. D.; [and others]. 1981. The true prairie ecosystem. US/IBP Synthesis Series 16. Stroudsburg, PA: Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company. 557 p. [16874]
42. Roundy, Bruce A. 1987. Seedbed salinity and the establishment of range plants. In: Frasier, Gary W.; Evans, Raymond A., eds. Proceedings of symposium: "Seed and seedbed ecology of rangeland plants"; 1987 April 21-23; Tucson, AZ. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service: 68-81. [4062]
43. Stoller, E. W. 1977. Differential cold tolerance of quackgrass and johnsongrass rhizomes. Weed Science. 25(4): 348-351. [17422]
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45. Toepfer, John E.; Eng, Robert L. 1988. Winter ecology of the greater prairie chicken. In: Bjugstad, Ardell J., technical coordinator. Prairie chickens on the Sheyenne National Grasslands [symposium proceedings]; 18 September 18; Crookston, MN. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-159. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 32-48. [5201]
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49. Weaver, T.; Lichthart, J.; Gustafson, D. 1990. Exotic invasion of timberline vegetation, Northern Rocky Mountains, USA. In: Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on whitebark pine ecosystems: ecology and management of a high-mountain resource; 1989 March 29-31; Bozeman, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-270. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 208-213. [11688]
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FEIS Home Page
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