Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
Introductory
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
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| Photo by Rob Routledge, Sault College, Bugwood.org. |
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Howard, Janet L. 1993. Linnaea borealis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/linbor/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
LINBOR
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
LIBO3
LIBOL
COMMON NAMES :
twinflower
northern twinflower
western twinflower
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of twinflower is Linnaea borealis
L. [28,33,55,62,62]. It is a monotypic genus [28]. Recognized
subspecies are as follows:
Linnaea borealis ssp. borealis [35]
Linnaea borealis sps. americana (Forbes) Hult. [35,45] (American twinflower)
Linnaea borealis ssp. longiflora (Torr.) Hult. [35,55,62] (Pacific twinflower)
Some authorities [33,62] recognize L. b. ssp. borealis and L. b. ssp.
longiflora as the only distinct subspecies of twinflower.
LIFE FORM :
Forb-Shrub-Vine
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The typical subspecies of twinflower is distributed from eastern Alaska
across Siberia and northern Europe [35]. Pacific twinflower occurs
along the West Coast from southern Alaska to northern California
[35,55]. American twinflower is distributed from interior Alaska across
Canada to Newfoundland and south to northern Arizona and New Mexico,
South Dakota, Indiana, West Virginia, and New Jersey [28,35,41].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES44 Alpine
STATES :
AK AZ CA CO CT ID IL IN ME MD
MA MI MN MT NH NJ NM NY ND OH
OR PA RI SD UT VT WA WV WI WY
AB BC MB NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ
SK YT
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K006 Redwood forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
K028 Mosaic of K002 and K026
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K052 Alpine meadows and barren
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
18 Paper birch
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
31 Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white-cedar
38 Tamarack
51 White pine - chestnut oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
107 White spruce
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
203 Balsam poplar
204 Black spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
216 Blue spruce
218 Lodgepole pine
251 White spruce - aspen
252 Paper birch
253 Black spruce - white spruce
254 Black spruce - paper birch
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Twinflower occurs in several grassland and many hardwood and coniferous
forest types. It is named as a dominant understory or indicator species
in numerous published classifications. A partial listing is as follows:
Preliminary plant associations of the southern Oregon Cascade Mountain
Province [4]
Preliminary plant associations of the Siskiyou Mountain Province [5]
Ecology of wetlands in Big Meadows, Rocky Mountain National Park,
Colorado [12]
Forest habitat types of northern Idaho: a second approximation [13]
Classification of montane forest community types in the Cedar River
drainage of western Washington, U.S.A. [18]
A classification of forest habitat types of northern New Mexico and
southern Colorado [19]
Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities after
fire in the taiga of interior Alaska [24]
Forest vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and
Wyoming: a habitat type classification [34]
Plant communities of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota, U.S.A. [46]
Forest habitat types of Montana [57]
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Bighorn sheep of Alaska and caribou of northern Canada use twinflower as
incidental forage [7,61]. It provides 9.7 percent of winter diets of
Roosevelt elk of British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon, but only 0.5
percent of their summer diets [40]. It is listed as a food item of
ruffed grouse of Idaho [36].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Dry matter nutrient content of twinflower in Manitoba is 7.0 percent
protein and 39.3 percent acid detergent fiber. Estimated dry matter
digestibility for caribou is 59.5 percent [60].
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Twinflower is a native, evergreen, dwarf shrub [20]. It is creeping or
trailing in growth form, with numerous short aerial stems rising from
the stolon. With time, stolons may become shallowly buried beneath
litter and duff layers [17]; maximum depth of twinflower stolons in a
mixed conifer old-growth forest of central Oregon was 0.11 inch (0.27
cm) below the soil surface [2]. Aerial stems become woody with age but
rarely exceed 0.12 inch (0.30 cm) in diameter. The root crown of these
stems is positioned at or just beneath the duff or soil surface [17].
Twinflower has a shallow, fibrous network of roots with their growing
points within and slightly below the duff layer [56]. In the central
Oregon study mentioned above, average root depth was 0.11 inch (0.28 cm)
[2]. Twinflower fruit is a small, dry, one-seeded capsule [30,62].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Chamaephyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Vegetative reproduction by stolons is the primary method of twinflower
regeneration [2,21]. Twinflower first produces stolons at 5 to 10 years
of age [21].
Sexual reproduction is uncommon, but seedlings are occasionally found in
burned or other disturbed areas [21,65]. Pollination is effected by
native bees and syrphid wasps [6,30]; rarely, plants are self-fertile
[30]. Twinflower produces abundant seed [29], which apparently does not
persist in seed banks. A study in a paper birch-balsam fir (Betula
papyrifera-Abies balsamea) forest on Mont Jacques-Cartier in Quebec
showed a twinflower seed density of six seeds per square meter, with
none of the seeds proving viable [54]. In British Columbia, Kellman
[42] found only one viable twinflower seed in 34 samples collected from
the litter, A, and B soil horizons. Twinflower seed attaches to the
fur, hides, or feathers of animals, which serve as dispersal agents.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Twinflower grows in soils derived from a variety of parent materials.
Soil texture and nutrient levels also vary, and soil moisture levels
range from xeric to hydric [13,16,30,59]. The pH range of
twinflower-supporting soils in peatland bogs of Minnesota and
Saskatchewan is 4.0 to 7.0 [31,39]. Twinflower occurs on all aspects
[18]. It is found at the following elevations:
feet meters
northern ID; western MT 2,200 - 5,900 670 - 1,800 [13,25]
southern CO; northern NM 7,900 - 9,800 2,400 - 2,900 [19]
UT 6,000 - 9,600 1,830 - 2,900 [67]
CA 4,000 - 8,000 1,200 - 2,400 [55]
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Twinflower tolerates a wide spectrum of light intensity. It grows in
full daylight in alpine meadows and peat bogs [12,39], but subcanopy
light has been measured at 2 percent of full daylight in a closed-canopy
mountain hemlock-western redcedar (Tsuga heterophylla-Thuja
plicata)/twinflower type near Vancouver, British Columbia [51].
Twinflower is found in recently disturbed, seral, and climax plant
communities. Irwin [37] reported it as "abundant" after shelterwood
cutting in a western hemlock-western redcedar forest of northern Idaho.
Several authors have noted its presence in various climax forest types
[13,17,18,24,25,38].
In a study of understories of young (30-80 yrs), mature (80-195 yrs),
and old-growth (195-900 yrs) Douglas-fir forests of the Cascade Range of
Washington and Oregon, percent occurrence of twinflower by forest age
was as follows [63]:
young: 89
mature: 80
old-growth: 98
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Twinflower blooms from June through September throughout most of its
range [30,36]. Flowers last about 7 days, and fruits mature
approximately 36 days after flowering [32]. The leaves persist for 2
years [21]; season of leaf abscission was not reported in the
literature.
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Twinflower is a fire avoider [56]. During fire, small patches of
twinflower in draws, moist duff, or other protected places usually
escape burning [15,17]. Twinflower most commonly establishes in burn
areas from stolons produced by these unburned plants. It also
establishes from animal-dispersed seed [3,56].
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Surface rhizome/chamaephytic root crown
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Twinflower is killed even by low-intensity fire [9,17,23,50,65].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Twinflower sometimes colonizes new areas after fire. In northwestern
Montana, broadcast burning was conducted to remove slash following
logging of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Twinflower had previously
been absent from the site. Twinflower seedlings first appeared at
postfire year 6, showing 1 percent ground cover. At postfire year 9,
twinflower cover was still at 1 percent [65]. Broadcast burning was
also conducted at a nearby site where prefire twinflower cover was 8
percent. The fire removed 11 percent of the duff, and all existing
twinflower was killed. As with the previously mentioned fire,
twinflower seedlings first established at postfire year 6, showing 1
percent cover. By postfire year 8, twinflower cover at this site had
increased to 8 percent [65].
In Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis)-subalpine fir forests of central
British Columbia, twinflower frequency on 4- to 22-year-old burns was 60
percent. Frequency on 37- to 75-year-old burns was 70 percent [26].
Two consecutive annual, low-intensity prescribed fires were conducted on
the Petawawa Experimental Station in Ontario. Prefire relative
twinflower density was 9.65 percent. After the first fire, twinflower
relative density lowered to 0.14 percent. It dropped to 0.11 percent
after the second fire [52].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
The following Research Project Summaries provide information on prescribed
fire use and postfire response of plant community species including twinflower:
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Brown and Marsden [11] have developed an equation for estimating fuel
weight of twinflower and other small woody plants, grasses, and forbs in
coniferous forests of western Montana and northern Idaho. Brown [10]
developed a method of determining bulk densities of nonuniform surface
fuels in subalpine fir/twinflower and other forest types of that region.
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Linnaea borealis
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