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SPECIES: Clintonia uniflora

INTRODUCTORY

Brother Alfred Brousseau @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database.

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
Meyer, Rachelle S. 2005. Clintonia uniflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/cliuni/all.html [].

FEIS ABBREVIATION:
CLIUNI

SYNONYMS:
None

NRCS PLANT CODE [116]:
CLUN2

COMMON NAMES:
bride's bonnet
blue-bead lily
blue bead
beadlily
clintonia
one-flowered clintonia
queencup beadlily
queen's cup
single-flowered clintonia

TAXONOMY:
Clintonia uniflora (Menzies ex J.A. & J.H. Schultes) Kunth (Liliaceae) is the scientific name of bride's bonnet [30,56,57,60,92].

LIFE FORM:
Forb

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
None

OTHER STATUS:
None

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

SPECIES: Clintonia uniflora
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Bride's bonnet occurs along the West Coast from southeastern Alaska into California. Its distribution extends eastward into British Columbia, Alberta, Idaho, and western Montana [56,57]. The Flora of North America provides a distributional map of bride's bonnet .

ECOSYSTEMS [41]:
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine

STATES/PROVINCES: (key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES
AK CA ID MT OR WA

CANADA
AB BC

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [18]:
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
4 Sierra Mountains
8 Northern Rocky Mountains

KUCHLER [68] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K001 Spruce-cedar-hemlock forest
K002 Cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir-Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir-hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K007 Red Fir Forest
K011 Western Ponderosa Forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar-hemlock-pine forest
K014 Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce-fir forest

SAF COVER TYPES [36]:
107 White spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir
207 Red fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
218 Lodgepole pine
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock-Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir-hemlock
227 Western redcedar-western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir-western hemlock
237 Interior Ponderosa Pine
243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [101]:
None

HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:
Bride's bonnet occurs in many coniferous forests types [12,29,120]. It is an indicator in moist or cool forests [19,45,113] such as western redcedar (Thuja plicata), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), grand fir (Abies grandis), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) [12,23,59,75,113]. In addition to these species, bride's bonnet is associated with western white pine (Pinus monticola) [12], Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) [51], and noble fir (Abies procera) [39]. It also inhabits riparian zones [65]. Bride's bonnet occurs to a lesser extent in drier forest types such as Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) [12,120]. It has even been reported in mature ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) stands [77]. Understory species associates include threeleaf foamflower (Tiarella trifoliata), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), and bunchberry dogwood (Cornus canadensis) [26,73,89].

Classifications that use bride's bonnet as an understory dominant, associate, or indicator species are listed below by state or province.

British Columbia [63,67]
Idaho [23,24,26,106]
Montana [48,49,89,95]
Oregon [12,33,53,54,59,65]
Washington [19,26,55,75,113,120]

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIES: Clintonia uniflora 

 

 

       Brother Alfred Brousseau @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database  G. D. Carr @ http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/lili.htm

GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available [30,57,92].

Bride's bonnet is a perennial, rhizomatous, semi-succulent herb [20,57]. This native, warm-season species can live for 30 or more years [4]. The spreading rhizome produces a 6-inch (15 cm) aerial shoot from 0.5 to 2.75 inches (1.4 - 6.9 cm) below ground [6]. From this stem a perfect flower approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) long develops. Following pollination, a smooth berry between 0.25 and 0.4 inch (6-10 mm) long forms. The plant has 2 to 3 broad, flat, basal leaves about 3 to 6 inches (7 -15 cm) long. Means and ranges of a selection of morphological characteristics sampled from bride's bonnet individuals in the Cascade Ranges in Oregon are shown below [4] and are followed by characteristics of bride's bonnet fruit from the Rainbow Creek Research Area of southeastern Washington [91].

Morphological Characteristics Mean Range
Number of shoots 2.9 1-9
Number of leaves 5.3 2-15
Number of roots 18 8-48
Maximum root depth (cm) 23 15-30
Total rhizome length (cm) 118 15-392
Maximum rhizome depth (cm) 4.8 3-6
Maximum age of live tissue (yr) 21.3 8-30

Fruit Characteristics

 Mean* Standard Error
Fruit diameter (mm) 9.94 0.15
Fresh fruit mass (mg) 435.66 18.92
Pulp dry mass (mg) 16.40 0.67
Number of seeds/fruit 6.76 0.36
Fresh seed mass/fruit (mg) 82.23 5.10
Fresh pulp mass/seed mass (mg) 6.85 0.69
*n=100 fruits

RAUNKIAER [93] LIFE FORM:
Geophyte

REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Bride's bonnet reproduces by production of ramets from spreading rhizomes and germination from seed. Production of new ramets allows individual plants to take advantage of resources available in multiple areas and at different times [105]. It is possible that asexual reproduction occurs more often than germination by seed [4,50,124].

Breeding system: Bride's bonnet is monoecious [57].

Pollination: No information is available on this topic.

Seed production: The bride's bonnet berry contains several seeds. Piper [91] found a mean of 6.76 seeds per fruit and a mean seed weight of 82.23 mg/fruit (see the table above for more detail) [91]. Fruit production of a given ramet may be infrequent. Antos [4] observed only 4 of 29 ramets blooming in the Cascade Range of Oregon. Harmon and Franklin [50] found no bride's bonnet seeds in a year's worth of seed rain samples or in 6 months of "growing out" 2 soil samples from sites that had 2.9% and 1.5% coverage of bride's bonnet , respectively. However, this result may reflect the length of time before germination more than a lack of seeds [90].

Seed dispersal: Frugivorous birds are the only reported dispersers of bride's bonnet seeds. Observations led Piper [91] to conclude that the varied thrush was the principal species eating several fruits, including those of bride's bonnet , in his study area in southeastern Washington. Hungerford [58] classified bride's bonnet as an important ruffed grouse food, but actual use was not reported. Pojar and MacKinnon [92] and Layser [72] also noted the use of bride's bonnet berries as grouse food. Piper [91] observed fruits taken by elk or deer during grazing. He assumed that bride's bonnet seeds eaten by ungulates and by rodents were lost. However, the germination rates of bride's bonnet seeds in ripe fruits eaten by any species are unknown. Seeds eaten before they ripen are effectively predated [90].

Seed banking: Although little is known of the length of time soil-stored bride's bonnet seeds remain viable, findings to date suggest it is at least a couple years. Piper [90] found an average of 56.55% of seeds did not germinate 500 days after the first individual in a collection germinated. Since percentages of nonviable seeds from ripe fruit were very small, the percent that were dormant would be only slightly less. In addition, bride's bonnet germinated in a greenhouse from soil salvaged from a campground construction site. It was 1 of 6 species that also germinated at the revegetation site within a year [103].

Germination: All the reported bride's bonnet germination information comes from a single study, in which seeds were placed in 0.8 inch (2 cm) of moist sand and kept in a refrigerator at 40 °F (5 °C). Of seeds that were collected from ripe fruit, an average of 43.45% germinated between the time the first seed germinated and 500 days later. On average it took 325.5 days for the first individual from a collection to germinate. Germination rate increased with later collection dates, with fruit collected on 13 September having a 49% germination rate. No seeds germinated from unripe fruit, and only 8.57% germinated from ripening fruit [90].

Seedling establishment/growth: Piper [90] reported diverse effects of increased light on bride's bonnet seedlings grown in a greenhouse. Bride's bonnet seedlings grew larger and had a higher percentage of root biomass when grown in full sunlight than when grown in 35% of full sun. However, those grown in full sun experienced a 4% lower survival rate than those grown in 35% of full sun. Root biomass of seedlings also increased with day length [90].

Asexual regeneration: Rhizomes of bride's bonnet are long and fast growing [124] and can connect a number of aerial shoots, or ramets [4]. McCune [79] observed an increase in the production of new ramets a year after the initiation of a trenching experiment (roots of surrounding vegetation severed, giving plants in the plot access to more resources).

SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
Bride's bonnet can be found in coniferous forests in a wide variety of moderately dry to moist sites [64,69,77,80], although coverages may be higher in areas with increased soil moisture [38]. It is most common between 3,000 to 5,000 feet (914-1,525 m) [114], but has been reported from below 1,000 up to 6,000 feet (305-1,829 m) elevation [74,100,114]. Topography varies from flat riparian zones [65] to steep slopes [95].

Soils: Bride's bonnet occurs on a wide variety of soil types and site productivity levels. Habitat types that contain bride's bonnet in the subboreal white spruce (Picea glauca) zone of British Columbia occurred on a wide range of soil textures, although some types did not occur on sandy soils [119]. La Roi and Hnatiuk [69] reported bride's bonnet on relatively fine-textured soils in Banff and Jasper National Parks, Alberta. Morainal till [47] and fine-grained metamorphic bedrock such as phyllite and hornfeld [97] have been reported as parent materials. Bride's bonnet also grows in a range of volcanic material including tephra [124], ash [86], and pumice [80]. Bride's bonnet habitat types described by Pfister and others [89] occurred on sites with a wide range of soil textures, although occurrence on clay loam was rare. Gravel content of these sites ranged from 5% to 40%. Coarse content was typically metamorphic rock, including argillite and gneiss/schist, and noncalcareous sedimentary rock. However, other types including igneous and calcareous material occurred. The minimum and maximum duff depths for these sites were 1 inch (2.6 cm) and 3.5 inches (9.0 cm), respectively. The sites shared some characteristics. For instance, all sites had low percentages of bare rock, no bare soil, and acidic soils, with pH ranging from 4.9 to 5.6 [89]. Klinka and others [64] also noted bride's bonnet 's preference for acidic soils. Bride's bonnet tolerates a wide range of calcium availability [119] and can occur in nitrogen poor soils [64]. Although associated with sites with high productivity [44,48,66,114], bride's bonnet occurs on sites with a wide range of productivity from poor to high [97,114,115,119]. On more productive sites bride's bonnet is likely to occur in hummocks or on decaying wood [42,119]. Several authors have reported bride's bonnet growing in organic matter [42,64,88,119].

SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Shade tolerance: Bride's bonnet occurs on sites with a wide range of light availability [35,119]. Its shade tolerance has been widely reported [4,64,70,105]. It has been found on sites with as little as 1.5% to 3.5% full sunlight [35,119] and over 60% full sunlight [35]. Bride's bonnet typically increases as light availability increases from very low levels. For example, Stewart [107] found that bride's bonnet frequency and coverage increased in canopy openings which had an average direct radiation of 9.6% (sx=0.6) compared to closed stands of western hemlock, which had average direct radiation values of 6.1% (sx=0.4). In addition, Emmingham [35] reported an increase in maximum bride's bonnet coverage as light increased from 3.5%-6% of full sunlight to 6%-10% of full sunlight. However, bride's bonnet typically decreases as light availability increases further [38,119]. For instance, Forsythe [38] found that bride's bonnet coverage decreased as the total coverage of overstory species decreased from 18.2% to 1.8%. Effects of full sunlight compared to 35% full sun on seedlings of bride's bonnet can be found in Seedling establishment/growth.

Bride's bonnet occurs in all successional classes, but has higher frequency and is more abundant in mature conifer stands [3,11,25,34,123]. Bride's bonnet 's association with mature and old-growth stands is shown by Ruggiero and others [96] and Spies [105] for the southern Washington Cascade Range and by Ruggiero and others [96] for southern Oregon and northern California. However, bride's bonnet also occurs in young stands [15,31,43,117]. Clarke and others [21] found bride's bonnet was most common in the 0- to 50- and 151- to 200-year-old forest age classes. Bride's bonnet also occurred in the 51- to 100- and 101- to 150-year-old age classes, but did not occur in stands older than 200 years. The wide tolerance ranges for nutrients and light mentioned above, and bride's bonnet 's ability to persist after moderate disturbances [108], are likely factors influencing the occurrence of bride's bonnet in stands of varying ages.

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Bride's bonnet typically starts flowering between May and June, and fruits mature from late July through to September. In northern Idaho, Hungerford [58] reported flowering between June 15th and June 30th, presence of immature fruit between July 15th and 30th, and fruit maturation from August to September. Phenology of bride's bonnet in northern Idaho and western Montana from 1928 to 1937 was [99]:

  1st appearance Leaves full grown Flowers start Flowers end Fruits ripe Seed fall starts Leaves color or wither
Average date May 10 June 21 June 16 July 1 August 11 August 19 August 23
Earliest date April 25 June 1 May 30 June 15 July 22 August 1 August 1
Latest date May 30 July 2 July 1 July 25 August 26 September 1 September 1
Standard error (days) 2 3 3 3 3 2 2
Number of observations 13 13 15 15 14 14 14

FIRE ECOLOGY

SPECIES: Clintonia uniflora
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS:
Fire adaptations: Bride's bonnet is an onsite survivor that regrows from underground rhizomes [109]. As of this writing, there are no reports in the literature of bride's bonnet establishing from seed within a year after a fire.

Fire regimes: The habitats containing bride's bonnet experience a variety of fire regimes [27,76,104]. Mean fire intervals are typically over 100 years, especially for lethal fires [17,27,76,104,122], but ranges can include intervals as short as 30 years or less [17,27,76,104]. Severities vary greatly and include surface [17,104], mixed-severity [104,122], and stand-replacing fires [17,27,104,122]. The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where bride's bonnet is important. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years)
silver fir-Douglas-fir Abies amabilis-Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii >200
grand fir A. grandis 35-200 [7]
western larch Larix occidentalis 25-350 [8,17,59]
Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-A. lasiocarpa 35 to > 200 [7]
Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. latifolia 25-340 [16,17,112]
western white pine* P. monticola 50-200 [7]
interior ponderosa pine* P. ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [7,14,71]
Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [7,9,10]
coastal Douglas-fir* P. menziesii var. menziesii 40-240 [7,83,94]
western redcedar-western hemlock Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla >200
western hemlock-Sitka spruce T. heterophylla-Picea sitchensis >200
mountain hemlock* T. mertensiana 35 to >200 [7]
*fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species review

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [109]:
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil

FIRE EFFECTS

SPECIES: Clintonia uniflora
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT:
Fire top-kills [109] or kills bride's bonnet .

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:
The extent of damage inflicted on bride's bonnet depends on several factors including root and rhizome depth, fire severity, and whether the plant is rooted in soil or organic material [52,104,110]. Fires with high degree of soil heating, long durations, or those that occur in areas with low moisture content can cause greater mortality [28,52,102].

PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Bride's bonnet typically declines in frequency and coverage due to fire [47,82,85,102,118]. Declines can be small and short lived. For example, 1 year after a fall experimental burn in a cold, wet area of the Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir zone of south-central British Columbia, mean bride's bonnet coverage dropped from 2.13% before fire to 0.61%. However, subsequent monitoring after 2, 3, 5, and 11 postfire years showed bride's bonnet coverage was equal to or greater than prefire coverage [47]. On a western larch-Douglas-fir site in western Montana, Halvorson [46] listed bride's bonnet as a common species 4 years after a fire on damp fuels that did not affect 65% of the vegetation and only charred the duff in affected areas. However, occurrence of bride's bonnet before the fire was unknown.

Much larger and lasting effects of fire have also been reported for bride's bonnet. For instance, 10 years after the Tillamook Fire in northwestern Oregon, frequency of bride's bonnet was 6% in a burned area compared to 68% within an island of unburned Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar forest [85]. Miller and Miller [82] listed bride's bonnet as an herb typical of unburned western hemlock-Douglas-fir-western redcedar stands, but reported it as absent from burned areas during 3 years of postfire monitoring after lightening started several wildfires in the North Cascades National Park of north-central Washington. After the Sundance wildfire in northern Idaho, an area containing Douglas-fir, western larch, western redcedar, and western hemlock took 10 or more years for bride's bonnet to reach coverages of at least 1% on many sites [111]. Again, coverages before the fire were unknown. It is possible that light and moisture conditions after severe fires are unfavorable for bride's bonnet persistence or establishment.

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
Much of the above variation may be explained by the severity of the fire and moisture content of the forest floor at the time of the fire. Neiland [85] was investigating the Tillamook Burn area, a region exposed to 3 severe fires within 12 years. The Sundance Burn was also a severe wildfire [108], while bride's bonnet responses reported by Halvorson [46] and Hamilton and Peterson [47] were after low-severity fires. Hamilton and Peterson's [47] study design included logging followed by no burn, spring burn, and fall burn treatments. Although both were low-severity fires, drier conditions occurred on the spring burn. This fire resulted in 24.9% duff reduction compared to 10.4% duff reduction in the fall burn. The dry, spring burn had the largest effect on bride's bonnet . Coverage dropped from 2.30% before treatment to 0.23% the year after treatment. After 11 years bride's bonnet coverage at the site (1.68%) had yet to the reach pretreatment level (2.30%). It is important to note that the treatments in this study were pseudoreplicated. Thus, results should not be extrapolated to other areas. Simmerman and others [102] investigated the response of vegetation after a shelterwood cut and 3 burn treatments (dry burn, moist burn, and a no burn control) on a Priest River Experimental Forest site in northern Idaho. Overstory was about 51% Douglas-fir, 33% ponderosa pine, and the remainder a mixture of western larch, western redcedar, and western white pine. They also found a larger effect from a dry burn. Bride's bonnet coverage was reduced from 2.4% to 0.3% compared to a reduction from 3.0% to 1.4% on the moist burn and a decrease from 3.6% to 2.7% on the site where only the shelterwood cut was performed.

In addition to fire severity and moisture content at the time of the burn, the substrate in which bride's bonnet is rooted can have a large effect. Bride's bonnet can root in soil or in organic layers [100,110]. Plants rooted in organic layers are much more susceptible to fire [104,110]. The rhizomes and roots of plants growing within the organic layer are consumed as a fire burns through, while those in the soil are protected. Rooting depth in the soil is also an important factor, as rhizomes and roots that are deeper are more protected from fire [52].

The Research Papers (Hamilton 2006a, Hamilton 2006b) and Research Project Summary of Hamilton's studies provide information on prescribed fire and postfire response of plant community species including bride's bonnet .

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
A decline in bride's bonnet coverage and frequency can be expected after fire. The extent and duration of the effect depends on many factors including fire severity, rooting depth and substrate, and site conditions, such as moisture content of the organic mantle, before and after the fire. Effects on bride's bonnet may be mitigated by performing low-severity prescribed burns when the forest floor is moist [47,102].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

SPECIES: Clintonia uniflora
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE:
Bride's bonnet is of at least minor importance as food for some wildlife species [58,90,92].

Palatability/nutritional value: Bride's bonnet is food for several wildlife species. Frugivorous birds eat bride's bonnet berries. Varied thrush was the main species eating fruit in a study in southeastern Washington [90]. Grouse have also been reported to eat bride's bonnet seeds [72,92]. Hungerford [58] lists bride's bonnet as an important ruffed grouse food; however, use was not demonstrated. Almack [2] reported a grizzly bear eating bride's bonnet roots. Piper [91] reported a low incidence of rodent use of bride's bonnet during an investigation of frugivorous birds. Elk and deer consume bride's bonnet berries while grazing, although the extent was not reported [91]. Young and Robinette [121] list bride's bonnet as a low-importance food for elk on the Selway Game Preserve of northern Idaho, although bride's bonnet was not included as a food item in other studies that have investigated ungulate diets [61,62,84]. Bride's bonnet is not considered palatable to many species [66,92] and the berry may be poisonous [44,45,92,114]. Nutritional content of the berry is given below [91].

Component Mean*
Protein 5.95
Lipid 3.06
Neutral detergent fiber 13.15
Ash 12.4
Calcium 0.768
Magnesium 0.31
Phosphorus 0.424
Potassium 5.594
* Percentage based on dry pulp masses

Cover value: No information is available on this topic.

VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
No information is available on this topic.

OTHER USES:
Bride's bonnet is a useful indicator for the health of certain stands. It typically occurs on sites that have high conifer productivity [44,48,66,114]. Schenk and others [98] determined that bride's bonnet indicated low risk of grand fir mortality from fir engraver beetles. Frederick and Partridge [40] found bride's bonnet was a good indicator of sites with high incidence of decay due to the moist nature of the areas in which fungus occurs.

Halverson's [45] summary of indicator plants of western Oregon and southwestern Washington noted the traditional use of bride's bonnet juice for sore eyes and bruised leaves to stop bleeding [45]. Bride's bonnet is currently used as a garden ornamental [44,66].

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Several studies have investigated the effect of logging on understory species including bride's bonnet . Many investigators have reported lower bride's bonnet coverage in clearcuts compared to undisturbed stands [5,78,87]. In a Pacific silver fir-western hemlock forest in western Washington, North and others [87] found bride's bonnet frequency on a clearcut was 5% compared to a frequency of 6.7% in an adjacent, intact, 65-year old forest. In western Montana, Marcum [78] found bride's bonnet had declined on 1- and 3-year-old clearcuts compared to neighboring intact stands, and was absent from a 17-year-old clearcut despite its occurrence in a nearby undisturbed site. In addition, Stickney and Campbell [111] reported effects of logging-slash-broadcast burn treatments performed in several areas of northern Idaho and northwestern Montana. Of 9 sites containing bride's bonnet before treatment, only 1 had bride's bonnet coverage of at least 1% within 5 years of treatment. Dyrness [32] found that the trace amount of bride's bonnet found before logging was absent after clearcutting at H. J. Andrews Experimental Forests in the central Cascades of Oregon. However, thinning treatments may increase bride's bonnet coverage. Alaback and Herman [1] found an increase in mean bride's bonnet coverage 17 years after thinning treatments in a western hemlock stand in Oregon. Bride's bonnet coverage increased from zero in the control plot (>1,452 trees/ha) to 1.5% in the heavy thinning treatment (thinned to 330 trees/ha), and 0.375% in the extreme thinning treatment (261 trees/ha). Sixteen months after harvesting, North and others [87] reported a bride's bonnet frequency of 16.7% in a green tree retention harvest (27 trees/ha) in western Washington. Frequency was 6.7%  in the nearby, undisturbed forest. In contrast, in a Douglas-fir-ponderosa pine community in northern Idaho, Simmerman and others [102] recorded a bride's bonnet decline, from 3.6% coverage to 2.7%, about 2 years after a shelterwood cut that reduced basal area to 40 or 80 feet per acre. Statistical significance of individual species responses were not tested in any of these 3 studies. The different responses could reflect the several differences between the studies, including the sites investigated and logging methods used.

The increase of bride's bonnet in some thinned stands may result from its ability to take advantage of forest openings due to natural disturbance [105]. To an extent, bride's bonnet typically increases with increasing light (see Shade tolerance). This extent is typically surpassed in a clearcut, giving a likely cause for the responses above. Other factors associated with clearcutting that are likely to affect bride's bonnet are changes in moisture regimes and damage done during the logging process. Forsythe [38] reported an increase of bride's bonnet with increasing soil moisture. Thus, changes to the moisture regime such as increased evaporation on the forest floor, may negatively affect bride's bonnet . In addition, Cole [22] found that bride's bonnet had low resistance to trampling. A 50% reduction from pretreatment frequency was observed after bride's bonnet was walked over 75 to 100 times, which illustrates the degree of sensitivity of bride's bonnet to logging activity. Performing logging activities in late summer or when there is snow cover can reduce soil compaction, which can preserve the typically high productivity of many bride's bonnet -containing sites [48], and may mitigate some effects on bride's bonnet .

Clintonia uniflora: References

1. Alaback, Paul B.; Herman, F. R. 1988. Long-term response of understory vegetation to stand density in Picea-Tsuga forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 18: 1522-1530. [6227]

2. Almack, Jon. 1986. Grizzly bear habitat use, food habits, and movements in the Selkirk Mountains, northern Idaho. In: Contreras, Glen P.; Evans, Keith E., compilers. Proceedings--grizzly bear habitat symposium; 1985 April 30 - May 2; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-207. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 150-157. [10815]

3. Antos, J. A.; Habeck, J. R. 1981. Successional development in Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes forests in the Swan Valley, western Montana. Northwest Science. 55(1): 26-39. [12445]

4. Antos, Joseph A. 1988. Underground morphology and habitat relationships of three pairs of forest herbs. American Journal of Botany. 75(1): 106-113. [15052]

5. Antos, Joseph A.; Shearer, Raymond C. 1980. Vegetation development on disturbed grand fir sites, Swan Valley, northwestern Montana. Res. Pap. INT-251. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. [7269]

6. Antos, Joseph A.; Zobel, Donald B. 1984. Ecological implications of belowground morphology of nine coniferous forest herbs. Botanical Gazette. 145(4): 508-517. [17417]

7. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]

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