Fire Effects Information System (FEIS)

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Acroptilon repens

• INTRODUCTORY
• DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
• BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• FIRE ECOLOGY
• FIRE EFFECTS
• MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• REFERENCES

INTRODUCTORY

• AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION
• FEIS ABBREVIATION
• SYNONYMS
• NRCS PLANT CODE
• COMMON NAMES
• TAXONOMY
• LIFE FORM
• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• ECOSYSTEMS
• STATES
• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
• SAF COVER TYPES
• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

Russian knapweed is widespread in the U.S. and especially common in the semiarid portions of the western states and adjacent Canada. Maddox and others [45] reported infestations in South Dakota, Minnesota, and Virginia in 1985, and current distribution maps indicate its occurrence in several midwestern and Great Plains states [40,77]. The Plants database provides a distribution map of Russian knapweed in the United States.

The following table reflects estimates of Russian knapweed acreage as reported by surveyed states or provinces in 1988 and again in 2000 (from [25]):

Although inventories are more common and more accurate in the year 2000 than in 1988, 50% of these states reported only 50% accuracy, while 31% reported 51 to 75% accuracy, and 2 states reported 75 to 100% accuracy in the 2000 survey [25].

The following biogeographic classification systems are presented as a guide to demonstrate where Russian knapweed might be found based on reported occurrence and biological tolerance to factors that are likely to limit its distribution. Precise distribution information is limited, especially in the southwestern, central, midwestern, and eastern states. Therefore, these lists are speculative and not exhaustive.

Pacific Northwest:
In eastern Washington, the most common associate of Russian knapweed is basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus) [75]. In this area, Russian knapweed occurs in big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata)/bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus)/saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) and basin wildrye/saltgrass habitat types [59]. Russian knapweed may also be found in the big sagebrush/basin wildrye habitat type in Oregon [56].

In Idaho, Russian knapweed may be found with bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), and rose (Rosa spp.). In this area it may threaten rare plants such as Spalding's silene (Silene spaldingii), smallhead goldenweed (Pyrrocoma liatriformis), sagebrush Mariposa lily (Calochortus macrocarpus var. maculosus), and Idaho hawksbeard (Crepis bakeri ssp. idahoensis) [56].

In Montana, Russian knapweed was found growing in alfalfa and grain fields in Missouri River bottomlands in the north-central part of the state. Vegetation in the area included sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)-grassland (where dominants included western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), smooth brome (Bromus inermis), and Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis)); black greasewood; plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera); willow (Salix spp.) and "meadow" types. Plants associated with Russian knapweed included barley (Hordeum spp.), witchgrass (Panicum capillare), green bristlegrass (Setaria viridis), pigweed (Amaranthus spp.), Chenopodium spp., old-man's-whiskers (Geum triflorum), summer-cypress (Kochia scoparia), and common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) [1]. Of 21 diverse sites in southwestern Montana dominated by curlleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), Russian knapweed occurred on 2 sites west of the Continental Divide in 1975 [26].

Middle Rocky Mountains:
In Wyoming, Russian knapweed occurs on perennial grasslands dominated by blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) [17].

In Colorado, the most severe infestations of Russian knapweed occur in mountain and western slope counties, with lighter infestations associated with blue grama on the eastern plains [17]. Habitats in which Russian knapweed may be found include riparian woodlands dominated by cottonwood (Populus spp.), skunkbush sumac, and willow; riparian shrubland; and sagebrush/fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) shrublands.

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT

Russian knapweed shoot development originates from root-borne buds. A patch of Russian knapweed may have 9 to 27 shoots per square foot (100-300/m²) [83]. Russian knapweed stems are thin, erect and openly branched, standing up to 3 feet (0.9 m) tall. Rosette leaves are 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm) long and 0.4 to 1 inch (1-2.5 cm) wide. Leaves grow smaller near the tops of the stems. Flowerheads arise terminally and are 0.25 to 0.5 inch (0.6 to 1.3 cm) in diameter. Russian knapweed seeds are achenes and are oblong, 2.1 to 2.4 mm in length by 0.6 to 0.7 mm in width. Seeds are covered with many fine hairs and have a pappus on the apex ([83,86] and sources therein).

Several allelopathic compounds have been isolated form Russian knapweed [29,71,72]. It is known that allelopathy plays an important role in Russian knapweed ecology and that these compounds can interfere with the growth of associated plants [41].

Breeding system: Russian knapweed is monoecious and is an obligate outcrosser [36].

Pollination: Russian knapweed is insect pollinated [36,83].

Seed production: A single Russian knapweed plant can produce about 1,200 seeds per year (Ivanova 1966, as cited by [83,86]). Watson [83] reported Russian knapweed seed production of about 100 seeds per plant per year along roadsides, and about 292 seeds per plant on rangeland in British Columbia, with a high ovule abortion rate. Beck [8] reports seed production of about 50 to 500 per shoot in Colorado. Flower production declines with decreasing light levels [22].

Seed dispersal: Russian knapweed seedheads generally remain closed at maturity, and the relatively heavy seeds tend to lose the small pappus bristles at maturity; therefore, wind dispersal is an unlikely method for long-range seed dispersal [58,83]. Ballistic dispersal may be more important than wind dispersal: Mature achenes dehisce from the receptacle and usually remain in the involucre, but can be launched over distances roughly equal to the height of the plant when the involucre sways in a breeze [2]. The primary means of long-range seed dispersal is probably via contaminated hay and other seed (primarily alfalfa), or by movement of farm machinery or other vehicles [58,61].

Seed banking: Seed banking of Russian knapweed is not reported in the literature. It is unclear how long Russian knapweed seeds can remain viable, as reports vary from 2 to 3 years (Ivanova 1966 as cited by [83]), while Andersen (1968) reported successful germination after 5 years of dry storage [17], and Selleck [66] reported successful germination of seeds after up to 9 years storage at room temperature.

Germination: Russian knapweed seeds do not germinate readily [58], and germination rarely occurs in the field [66,83]. An initial dormancy period has been observed in Russian knapweed seeds and can be broken by alternating temperatures. Russian knapweed seeds are able to germinate under a wide range of temperatures (33 to 95 °F (0.5-35 °C)) with optimum germination occurring between 68 and 86 °F (20-30 °C) ([83], and sources therein). Light is not essential for germination, but alternating light and darkness improves germination, and white light appears to stimulate germination [50].

Seedling establishment/growth: No information

Asexual regeneration: Russian knapweed reproduces primarily by vegetative means, and can spread rapidly and form dense colonies. The root system consists of the taproot, 1 to many horizontal roots, and their vertical extensions. Buds on the horizontal roots can form adventitious shoots that can grow to be independent plants ([58,83,86] and sources therein). Spread can be hastened by cultivation [58].

Elevation: There are few reports in the literature on the elevational range of Russian knapweed. It is primarily an invader of croplands. It can be found up to 8,600 to 9,300 feet (2,620-2,835 m) in its native land (Klokov and others 1963, as cited by [58]), and up to 6,300 feet (1,900 m) in California [37]. It has been observed between 4,025 to 7,850 feet (1,220-2,380 m) in Utah [85].

Moisture and temperature: Watson [83] reports a typical infestation of Russian knapweed in British Columbia with annual precipitation of 9.8 inches (245 mm) and mean summer temperature of 70.5 °F (21.4 °C) [55]. Fructan metabolism in Russian knapweed gives it a competitive advantage by facilitating growth at relatively cool temperatures when soil moisture is usually most plentiful [19]. Only relative descriptions of the moisture requirements of Russian knapweed are available in the literature. Observations in southeastern Colorado suggest that stands of Russian knapweed are denser where precipitation is "lower" [30]. Similarly, while Russian knapweed is found in both irrigated and arid areas in Canada, it is more common and more competitive in "drier" regions [66,83,86]. However, it has been documented as well established under irrigated conditions [83]. In Washington, Russian knapweed is most commonly found in areas with relatively high soil moisture content such as irrigated or irrigation runoff areas; near rivers, creeks, canals, coulees, and draws; on toeslopes; in deep, fine textured soils in high precipitation zones and valley bottoms; and in poorly drained soils [59]. Russian knapweed can tolerate some flooding, but not severe drought [58].

Soils: In its native land, Russian knapweed grows on clayey, sandy or rocky steppes and sunny meadows, on saline soils, clayey, rocky, or sandy shores of lakes and rivers, on rocky and clayey slopes of hills, and on bottomlands (Klokov and others 1963, as cited by [58]). In Washington, Russian knapweed is often found on sites with either greater effective rooting depth or greater effective moisture than adjacent areas [21], and it tolerates saline and alkaline soils [58]. Russian knapweed occurs mostly in alkaline, seasonally wet habitats in Montana [43]. Researchers in Colorado have noted that while Russian knapweed can grow on a variety of soil types, it appears to be most competitive on soils with high clay content [30,61]. Goslee and others [32] suggest that the ability of Russian knapweed to dominate on fine-textured soils while forming a persistent mixture with other species on coarse soils may be due to allelopathy, since allelopathy is likely to have more impact on fine-textured soils.

Watson [83] reports that the northern limit of Russian knapweed in British Columbia is 54 °N, but that most infestations occur in the drier southern regions of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan.

FIRE ECOLOGY

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

Fire regimes: Russian knapweed occurs primarily in agricultural communities in the western U.S. and southwestern Canada, where historic fire regimes have been dramatically altered. The historic fire regimes of the more native communities in which Russian knapweed sometimes occurs are of varied frequency and severity. Russian knapweed did not occur in these communities at the time in which historic fire regimes were functioning, but has established since fire exclusion began. It is unclear how historic fire regimes might affect Russian knapweed populations. It is also unclear how the presence of Russian knapweed might affect these fire regimes. Dense infestations of Russian knapweed may change the fire regime by changing the fuel characteristics and fire return interval at a given site. Research in this area is needed.

The following table provides some fire return intervals for communities and ecosystems in which Russian knapweed may be found. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

FIRE EFFECTS

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Postfire colonization potential: There is no information in the literature regarding the postfire colonization potential of Russian knapweed; however, general precautions should be followed to prevent establishment after fire. The USDA Forest Service's Guide to noxious weed prevention practices [76] provides several fire management considerations for weed prevention in general that may apply to Russian knapweed. Wildfire managers might consider including weed prevention education and providing weed identification aids during fire training; avoiding known weed infestations when locating firelines, monitoring camps, staging areas, helibases, etc., to be sure they are kept weed free; taking care that equipment is weed free; incorporating weed prevention into fire rehabilitation plans; and acquiring restoration funding.

When planning a prescribed burn, preinventory the project area and evaluate cover and phenology of any Russian knapweed present on or adjacent to the site, and avoid ignition and burning in areas at high risk for Russian knapweed establishment or spread. Avoid creating soil conditions that promote weed germination and establishment. Discuss weed status and risks in burn rehabilitation plans [76].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• PALATABILITY
• NUTRITIONAL VALUE
• COVER VALUE
• OTHER USES
• IMPACTS AND CONTROL

Examination of feeding sites and analysis of rumen contents indicate some use of Russian knapweed by white-tailed deer in north-central Montana in the summer and winter months [1]. Russian knapweed is considered important forage for Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep in British Columbia [7]. Birds and rodents eat the seeds [58].

Whitson [86] claims an 11% average annual increase of infestations in Wyoming. See Distribution and Occurrence for current estimations of infested acres for several western states. Olson [51] and Griffith [34] provide guidelines and methods for estimating the ecologic and economic impact of noxious weeds on rangelands.

Control: Russian knapweed has a competitive advantage in a variety of environments, and will continue to persist unless it is suppressed long enough to allow the introduction and establishment of desirable species [13,17]. Continued monitoring and follow-up treatments must be conducted at least annually to eliminate reinfestation of Russian knapweed [17,61].

Keys to controlling Russian knapweed are 1) stressing the plant and causing it to expend nutrient reserves in its root system [8], 2) eliminating new seed production, and 3) controlling its vegetative spread by planting competitive species and/or isolating the infestation so as not to spread root fragments to other locations during treatment. If sufficient human resources are available, mechanical control is a good place to start. Hand pulling or cutting the plants to kill the tops will starve the roots if done repeatedly, every time they sprout [61]. Continued vigilance is necessary since removed aerial parts are rapidly regenerated from vegetative buds on the roots [83].

Integrated weed management: Managers are encouraged to integrate control methods that complement one another. Integrated management includes considerations of not only killing the target plant, but also of establishing desirable species and maintaining weed-free systems over the long term. Factors to be addressed before a management decision is made include inventory and assessment to identify the target weed(s) and determine the size of the infestation(s); assessment of nontarget vegetation, soil types, climatic conditions, and important water resources; and an evaluation of the benefits and limitations of each control method [48]. Components of any integrated weed management program are sustained effort, constant evaluation, and the adoption of improved strategies [67].

Conceptual models can be developed to determine the probability that the weed management strategy will result in the desired plant community, based on the life histories and population dynamics of the species in the existing plant community [68]. A weed management strategy may include designed disturbance (e.g., mechanical or chemical control), controlled colonization (e.g., planting competitive species), and controlled species performance (e.g., biological control) [10,68,88]. An integrated management plan for Russian knapweed includes efforts to place continual stress on the plant [8].

Prevention: The most efficient and effective method of managing invasive species is to prevent their invasion and spread [69]. The fact that Russian knapweed became established wherever Turkestan alfalfa seed was planted suggests that only seed that has been cleaned and tested for purity should be used [61]. Preventing the establishment of Russian knapweed in natural areas is achieved by maintaining healthy natural communities and by conducting aggressive monitoring at least 3 times each year [17]. Begin monitoring in spring (late May to mid-June) when the plants have recently bolted; next in the summer (July) to find any missed plants that have flowered and are easily recognizable; and finally in the fall (late August or early September) to find any late-blooming plants that might have regrown from the root system of plants that had been pulled during an earlier search. Monitoring efforts are best concentrated on the most disturbed areas in a site, particularly along roadsides, parking lots, fencelines, and waterways. When an infestation is found, the location can be recorded and the surrounding area surveyed to determine the size and extent of the infestation, so these sites can be revisited on follow-up surveys [17]. For more on monitoring see Johnson [38]. It is important to kill whatever plants are found, followed by some combination of mechanical, chemical and/or biological control [17].

Weed prevention and control can be incorporated into all types of management plans, including logging and site preparation, management of grazing allotments, recreation management, research projects, road building and maintenance, and fire management [76]. See the Guide to noxious weed prevention practices [76] for specific guidelines in preventing the spread of weed seeds and propagules under different management conditions.

Physical or mechanical control: Removal of the aboveground portion of Russian knapweed plants reduces the current year's growth and will eliminate seed production for that year, but it will not kill the roots of Russian knapweed. Cutting, mowing or disking Russian knapweed infestations several times annually will control the existing topgrowth. Often, the plants that reemerge are smaller in size and lower in vigor. This is a good indication that the plants are under stress and that their nutrient reserves are declining [17]. Cutting (or mowing) 3 times a year (spring, summer, fall) stresses Russian knapweed plants and forces them to use nutrient reserves stored in the root system. Unless repeated frequently, the cut plants recover vigorously the following year [8]. Mowing can also damage surrounding plants and is not likely to be feasible in natural areas [17]. Mowing twice during the growing season in Wyoming was not effective in controlling Russian knapweed [10]. Mowing may stimulate regeneration of aerial parts and prevent dehydration of underground organs (Tarshis 1967, as cited by [83]).

Cutting is slightly less effective than pulling since cutting does not remove any portion of the Russian knapweed root. Pulling plants 2 to 3 times annually contained, but did not eliminate, a Russian knapweed infestation in Washington (Youtie 1998, as cited by [17]). Cutting roots for 3 years to a depth of 12 inches (30 cm) can destroy the root system in the top meter of soil. Root fragments up to 16 inches (40 cm) long are killed by burial below 12 inches (30 cm), indicating some control by deep plowing ([83], and sources therein).

Early control attempts involved starving the roots by smothering with straw and manure, which worked on small patches when materials were thick enough to prevent stems from penetrating through to sunlight. Sheet metal and paper have also been used successfully to control small patches [61], indicating that solarization with black plastic may be effective for controlling Russian knapweed, especially since its growth form causes it to occur in patches.

Fire: See the Fire Management Considerations section of this summary.

Biological: Subanguina picridis, a gall-forming nematode, is the first biological control agent approved for release on Russian knapweed and is established at limited sites in Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, Alberta, and British Columbia [25]. Subanguina picridis has not proven to be an effective agent under field conditions. Additional agents are being sought and tested [44,62,64]. The biology, gall morphology and physiology, and effectiveness in weed control of S. picridis are discussed by Harris and Shorthouse [35] and Rosenthal [62].

Grazing is not a viable method of control for Russian knapweed since the plant is generally avoided by grazing animals and can be poisonous to horses. When Russian knapweed is present on horse pasture, it must be removed or fenced off to prevent horses from eating it.

Chemical: Before using herbicides for control of invasive plants, managers must consider the effectiveness of the herbicide on the target plant, appropriate timing and rates of application, the potential impacts on nontarget organisms, and residual activity and toxicity of the herbicide. If chemical control is used it must be incorporated into long-term management plans that include replacement of weeds with desirable species, careful land use management, and prevention of new infestations [16]. Use of herbicides may be limited in natural areas. See the Weed Control Methods Handbook for considerations on the use of herbicides in natural areas and detailed information on specific chemicals.

In most situations, Russian knapweed cannot be effectively managed by herbicide alone [8]. Chemical control of Russian knapweed has proven more difficult than that of other knapweed species [58]. However, herbicide treatments may stress the plant enough to give desirable plants a competitive advantage [8,10]. Herbicides evaluated for control of Russian knapweed include 2,4-D, picloram, dicamba, clopyralid, glyphosate, and combinations thereof. Comparative trials designed to evaluate chemicals, combinations, rates, and/or timings are available [23,28,80]. Carpenter and Murray [17] give a synopsis of the effects of picloram, clopyralid, and glyphosate on Russian knapweed and associated species. Benz and others [10] evaluated several chemicals with and without seeding of "improved" grass species. Best results were obtained with clopyralid + 2,4-D and 'Sodar' thickspike wheatgrass (Elymus lanceolatus) [10]. Carpenter [18] includes extensive data on the effects of different rates of picloram, clopyralid, and metsulfuron on the density of nontarget plants from several families.

Cultural: Russian knapweed is sensitive to light competition [22], and crops that produce dense shade under irrigation (e.g., alfalfa) have been successfully used to suppress Russian knapweed [59]. Any treatment that provides control of Russian knapweed must either release competitive species present in the understory or be combined with reseeding before long-term sustainable control can be achieved [86,87]. When perennial grasses such as western wheatgrass and blue grama were present in the understory, single applications of picloram resulted in 85% control of Russian knapweed 8 years following treatment. When sites that lacked a desirable understory were similarly treated, annual weeds replaced Russian knapweed. Two applications of picloram and clopyralid before seeding and 1 application 1 year after seeding with wheatgrass (Triticaceae) species and Russian wildrye provided control up to 5 years after seeding [87]. Herbicide application and planting of Russian wildrye provided a competitive monoculture 7 to 9 years after treatment in Wyoming. The dense, fibrous root system of Russian wildrye may give it a competitive advantage in the capture of moisture and nutrients and physically inhibit the entry of Russian knapweed lateral roots [12,13].

Acroptilon repens: REFERENCES

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