SPECIES: Equisetum arvense
Introductory
SPECIES: Equisetum arvense
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Equisetum arvense. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/fern/equarv/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
EQUARV
SYNONYMS :
Equisetum arvense var. alpestre Wahlenb.
E. a. var. boreale (Bong.) Rupr.
E. a. var. riparium Farw.
E. calderi Boivin
SCS PLANT CODE :
EQAR
COMMON NAMES :
field horsetail
common horsetail
horsetail
bottlebrush
foxtail
queue de renard
pinetop
jointed rush
horse pipes
mare's tail
snake grass
TAXONOMY :
The accepted scientific name for field horsetail is Equisetum arvense L.
Fernald [19] listed E. a. var. boreale (Bong.) Ledeb., a northern
variety. There are a number of named forms that are not accepted by
most authors as true forms; they may be growth variants that depend on
environmental conditions and are not sufficiently distinct to warrant
taxonomic recognition [9,69].
Field horsetail and water horsetail (E. fluviatale) will hybridize de
novo where they occur together. The product, E. x litorale Kuhlewein is
sterile, but vegetatively vigorous and persistent [23].
LIFE FORM :
Fern or Fern Ally
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Equisetum arvense
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Field horsetail is cosmopolitan in distribution. In North America it
occurs from Newfoundland west to Alaska and south to Georgia, Alabama,
Texas, and California [19,23,25].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES41 Wet grasslands
STATES :
AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE GA HI
ID IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA MI
MN MS MO MT NE NV NH NJ NY NC
ND OH OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX
UT VT VA WA WV WI WY AB BC MB
NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ SK YT
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K006 Redwood forest
K007 Red fir forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K009 Pine - cypress forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
K022 Great Basin pine forest
K025 Alder - ash forest
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K028 Mosaic of K002 and K026
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K036 Mosaic of K030 and K035
K046 Desert: vegetation largely lacking
K047 Fescue - oatgrass
K048 California steppe
K049 Tule marshes
K050 Fescue - wheatgrass
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K052 Alpine meadows and barren
K053 Grama - galleta steppe
K054 Grama - tobosa prairie
K057 Galleta - three-awn shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K072 Sea oats prairie
K073 Northern cordgrass prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K076 Blackland prairie
K077 Bluestem - sacahuista prairie
K078 Southern cordgrass prairie
K079 Palmetto prairie
K080 Marl - everglades
K081 Oak savanna
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K083 Cedar glades
K084 Cross Timbers
K085 Mesquite - buffalograss
K088 Fayette prairie
K089 Black Belt
K092 Everglades
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K097 Southeastern spruce - fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K114 Pocosin
K115 Sand pine scrub
K116 Subtropical pine forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
14 Northern pin oak
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
17 Pin cherry
18 Paper birch
19 Gray birch - red maple
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
28 Black cherry - maple
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
31 Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
34 Red spruce - Fraser fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white-cedar
38 Tamarack
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
43 Bear oak
44 Chestnut oak
45 Pitch pine
46 Eastern redcedar
50 Black locust
51 White pine - chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
57 Yellow-poplar
58 Yellow-poplar - eastern hemlock
59 Yellow-poplar - white oak - northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
61 River birch - sycamore
62 Silver maple - American elm
63 Cottonwood
64 Sassafras - persimmon
65 Pin oak - sweetgum
69 Sand pine
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
72 Southern scrub oak
73 Southern redcedar
74 Cabbage palmetto
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
87 Sweet gum - yellow-poplar
88 Willow oak - water oak - diamondleaf oak
89 Live oak
91 Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
92 Sweetgum - willow oak
93 Sugarberry - American elm - green ash
94 Sycamore - sweetgum - American elm
95 Black willow
96 Overcup oak - water hickory
97 Atlantic white-cedar
98 Pond pine
100 Pondcypress
101 Baldcypress
102 Baldcypress - tupelo
103 Water tupelo - swamp tupelo
104 Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
107 White spruce
108 Red maple
109 Hawthorn
110 Black oak
111 South Florida slash pine
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
203 Balsam poplar
204 Black spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
207 Red fir
208 Whitebark pine
209 Bristlecone pine
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
216 Blue spruce
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
219 Limber pine
221 Red alder
222 Black cottonwood - willow
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
231 Port-Orford-cedar
232 Redwood
233 Oregon white oak
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
235 Cottonwood - willow
236 Bur oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California black oak
247 Jeffrey pine
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
250 Blue oak - Digger pine
251 White spruce - aspen
252 Paper birch
253 Black spruce - white spruce
254 Black spruce - paper birch
255 California coast live oak
256 California mixed subalpine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Field horsetail is abundant in many spruce communities, including white
spruce (Picea glauca), black spruce (P. mariana), blue spruce (P.
pungens), and Engelmann spruce (P. engelmannii). In Alberta and British
Columbia, other common understory species in the white spruce
communities in which field horsetail is abundant include prickly rose
(Rosa acicularis), honeysuckle (Lonicera involucrata), bunchberry
(Cornus canadensis), twinflower (Linnea borealis), naked miterwort
(Mitella nuda), and mountain fern moss (Hylocomium splendens) [1].
Field horsetail is a common indicator or herbaceous layer dominant for
mesic, hygric, and subhygric sites [3,26,40]. It occurs or is an
herbaceous layer dominant in a number of riparian associations, with
overstories of spruce, cottonwood (Populus spp.), willow (Salix spp.),
paper birch (Betula papyrifera), or alder (Alnus spp.) [3,30,44].
Field horsetail occasionally dominates sites lacking a woody overstory;
such sites are usually adjacent to a forest or shrub community [27]. In
Alberta field horsetail dominates low shores of channels and lakes with
water horsetail, water sedge (Carex aquatilis), and pendent grass
(Artophila fulva) [47].
A selection of publications naming field horsetail as an indicator or
herbaceous layer dominant is as follows:
Old growth forests of the Canadian Rocky Mountain national parks [1]
Classification of the riparian vegetation of the montane and subalpine
zones in western Colorado [3]
Forest community types of west-central Alberta in relation to selected
environmental factors [10]
Classification and management of riparian and wetland sites in central
and eastern Montana [26]
Riparian dominance types of Montana [27]
Habitat types on selected parts of the Gunnison and Uncompahgre
National Forests [38]
Riparian zone associations: Deschutes, Ochoco, Fremont, and Winema
National Forests [39]
Coniferous forest habitat types of northern Utah [48]
Wetland community type classification for west-central Montana [70]
Forest habitat types of Montana [53]
Vegetation and soils along the Dempster Highway, Yukon Territory:
I. Vegetation types [57]
Forest habitat types of eastern Idaho-western Wyoming [71]
A riparian community classification study [67]
Riparian community type classification of eastern Idaho-western
Wyoming [68]
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Equisetum arvense
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Field horsetail is a common food item consumed by grizzly bears [37].
On average, field horsetail formed 2.4 to 5.2 percent by volume of the
grizzly bear summer diet in Yellowstone National Park and was ranked
10th out of 32 food items in amount of consumption [49]. Field
horsetail occurs in the wet meadows, marshes and moist cirque basins
most often visited by grizzly bears in spring [2]. Field horsetail is a
minor to important component in the spring and early summer diet of
black bears [28,32]. It is of low nutritive value [49].
Field horsetail is not an important range forage for livestock, and
excessive amounts (more than 20 percent) in hay can cause scours,
paralysis, and death in horses [36].
PALATABILITY :
Field horsetail is low in palatability to livestock, deer, and elk [39].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
The nutritive value of the sterile shoots of field horsetail, as
percentage of dry weight, is as follows [49]:
protein 15
nitrogen-free extract 40.6
ether extract 3.7
gross kilocalories 2.9 per gram
Aerial, fresh field horsetail nutritive components, as percentage of dry
weight, are as follows [50]:
dry matter 100
ash 18.5
crude fiber 23.5
ether extract 2.4
nitrogen free extract 50.3
protein (nitrogen x 6.25) 5.3
digestible protein for
cattle 2.4
goats 1.5
horses 2.0
rabbits 2.8
sheep 1.9
COVER VALUE :
Field horsetail provides poor to fair cover for wildlife [13].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Native Americans and early settlers used tea made from field horsetail
as a diuretic. Field horsetail was used as a cough medicine for horses.
Dyes for clothing, lodges, and porcupine quills were made from field
horsetail. It was used for scouring and polishing objects. The young
shoots were eaten either cooked or raw [40].
Silica extracted from field horsetail is utilized for manufacture of
remineralizing and diuretic medicinal products. Other potential uses of
biogenic silica include industrial applications (abrasives, toothpaste,
protective cloth, optical fibers, thickeners for paint, etc.),
detergents, and cleaners. Leaf-odor constituents were used widely in th
1970's in perfumes but are little used now. These constituents can be
used as food flavors and flavor enhancers, and as animal repellants
[63].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Field horsetail is a weed in more than 25 crops of the world but is
seldom the worst offender. It is probably toxic to surrounding
vegetation due to high levels of alkaloids [33]. Field horsetail
increases after soil cultivation with or without the application of
herbicides [8]. It may be at least partially controlled by some
herbicides [51].
Field horsetail is sensitive to moisture stress; drought conditions
result in a reduction in the production of new shoots [8].
Repeated cultivation by hoeing reduces the number of mature shoots per
acre [8]. It is recommended that agricultural land infested with field
horsetail be deep-plowed each season to prevent deep rhizome
development; however, this will probably not be successful if the
rhizomes have already penetrated below plow-depth [33].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Equisetum arvense
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Field horsetail is a native, perennial, rhizomatous cryptogam. The
sporophyte is dimorphic with unbranched, fertile (stroboliferous),
spore-producing stems and branched, sterile stems. The spores germinate
to produce a distinct gametophytic generation. The prothallus
(gametophyte) is tiny, from 0.002 to 0.008 inch (0.5-2.0 mm) in height
(occasionally up to 0.016 inch [4 mm] in the center) and irregularly
lobed or branched [4,14].
The sterile stems are jointed, hollow, usually erect, and bear up to 20
whorls of slender branches [9]. They are usually from 2 to 24 inches
(5-60 cm) tall, rarely to 40 inches (1 m) tall [25]. The inconspicuous,
scalelike leaves occur in whorls at the nodes and are connected at their
bases. The fertile stems are nonchlorophyllous and generally are from 2
to 12 inches (5-30 cm) tall [19,25]. The strobili are from 0.4 to 1.4
inches (1-3.5 cm) long, peduncled, and blunt. The epidermis of both
types of stems has regularly arranged, silicified projections [23].
The rhizomes of field horsetail are branched and creeping. They are
similar to the aerial stems except that they are not hollow [9].
Storage tubers are produced on the rhizomes [19]. The rhizomes extend
to a depth of 40 inches (100 cm) or more; 50 percent of the total
rhizome weight is in the top 10 inches (25 cm) of soil, 23 percent in
the next 9.2 inches (23 cm), and the rest deeper [65]. Successive,
layered horizontal rhizome systems occur at about 12-inch (30 cm)
intervals. Golub and Wetmore [24] found five such layers by digging to
a 6.6 foot (2 m) depth, noting that the system extended even deeper.
Root development takes place at the bases of lateral branch buds, both
on rhizomes and erect shoots [33].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Geophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
The main mode of reproduction of field horsetail is asexual; conditions
for the production of gametophytes from spores are limited and
relatively rare [14,45].
Asexual reproduction: Field horsetail spreads from extensive rhizomes.
Even short segments of broken rhizomes (1.2 inches [3 cm]) will sprout
[8]. Overwintering buds develop at the nodes of the rhizomes [29].
Sexual reproduction: The spores of field horsetail are equipped with
elaters, which are long appendages that expand and contract with changes
in humidity. Elaters function to dig the spore into the soil surface
and to tangle spores together, thereby creating a larger propagule and
increasing the probability that prothalli will be close enough to ensure
fertilization. Elaters may also aid in wind dissemination. Spores
released by the strobiliferous stems are dispersed by wind or water.
The spores are thin-walled, short-lived, and quickly germinate under
moist conditions [31]. The spores germinate to form prothalli: tiny
plants only a few cell layers thick that are usually either male or
female, producing only antheridia or archegonia, respectively. Swimming
sperm are released by the antheridia and require water for transport to
the egg-containing archegonia. After fertilization takes place, the
sporophytic generation (the identifiable large plant) develops in situ,
growing out of the prothallus.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Field horsetail is a facultative wetland species [27]. Field horsetail
occurs in woods, fields, meadows and swamps, and moist soils alongside
streams, rivers, and lakes, and in disturbed areas [9,25]. Field
horsetail usually occurs on moist sites but can also be found on dry and
barren sites such as roadsides, borrow pits, and railway embankments
[9,35]. Under suitably moist climatic conditions, gametophytes occur on
newly deposited mud flats and gravel banks of rivers and lakes [14].
In the Adirondack Mountains of New York, field horsetail occurs from 210
to 2,100 feet (64-640 m) in elevation [42]. In Alaska, field horsetail
is widely distributed from sea level to alpine communities. On alpine
sites it is found on heaths, moist meadows, and rocky slopes [56].
Field horsetail is found at a wide range of elevations. Elevational
distributions from selected western states are as follows [13]:
Utah 4,700 to 8,000 feet (1,400-2,400 m)
Colorado 5,100 to 10,800 feet (1,500-3,290 m)
Wyoming 4,900 to 9,700 feet (1,500-3,000 m)
Montana 2,900 to 4,600 feet ( 880-1,400 m)
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Facultative Seral Species
Field horsetail is present in both seral and climax communities; its
presence is largely dictated by edaphic conditions rather than shade or
other factors. Field horsetail is an early colonizer on floodplain
deposits. These communities are often destroyed by flooding before
beingcan stabilized by willow establishment [62]. Field horsetail
continues to be present through succession, occurring under more
developed willow-alder communities, as an herbaceous layer dominant with
meadow horsetail (Equisetum pratense) under open balsam poplar (Populus
balsamifera)/thinleaf alder (Alnus tenuifolia) stands, and in the
herbaceous layer of closed balsam poplar/white spruce communities [62].
Field horsetail is an early colonizer of moist, primary successional
sites created by glacial retreat [59]. It is among the most common and
abundant sprouter in areas disturbed by debris from drilling activity in
northern Alaska. In most of these areas, field horsetail sprouted from
rhizomes already present under the debris [17]. Logging or logging and
burning may either maintain or increase field horsetail cover, depending
on pretreatment levels and forest cover type [12,15].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Strobiliferous shoot buds are initiated in July, August and into
September. Vegetative buds are initiated in October and November.
Strobiliferous buds elongate early in spring (March to May, depending on
latitude), usually before the vegetative stems elongate [29]. Emergence
is earliest in dry sandy places, later in wet or clay soils [9]. Spores
are shed in early May in the Adirondack Mountains of New York [42]. The
strobiliferous shoots die after the spores are shed [4]. Sterile stems
emerge in May, producing branches after they are 3 to 5 inches (8-12 cm)
in height [9,33].
Stems are killed by hard frost but may live into winter in areas where
they are protected [9]. Gametophytes are killed by frost; they do not
live longer than one growing season [14].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Equisetum arvense
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Field horsetail usually occurs in moist habitats that do not undergo
frequent fire. For example, in Idaho and Montana, it occurs in Fire
Group 11 stands (as described by Bradley and others), which have a
fire-return interval of 325 to 335 years (plus or minus 50 years). When
fires do occur, however, they are often severe due to high fuel loads.
Field horsetail is adapted to survive such fires; it has deep rhizomes
that are not killed by even very hot fires [52]. Field horsetail also
colonizes disturbed areas or new sites by wind-disseminated propagules,
although this is probably rare [7].
FIRE REGIMES:
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page
under "Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
Geophyte, growing points deep in soil
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Equisetum arvense
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Field horsetail is top-killed by most fires. The rhizomes are
particularly resistant to fire because they are buried deep in the
mineral soil [39].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Field horsetail regenerates rapidly after a fire [40]. The frequency of
occurrence of field horsetail is usually unchanged or increased after
fire. Gametophyte establishment requires the presence of moist,
exposed mineral soils (as well as a source of spores) [7].
In the first summer following a late May, 1983, wildfire in white spruce
stands, a number of herbaceous species established from seed. These
included Bicknell geranium (Geranium bicknellii), Corydalis sempervirens,
false dragonhead (Dracocephalum parviflorum), and fireweed. By 1985,
they were replaced by more persistent species including field horsetail
and bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis) [61].
In newly burned white spruce sites, field horsetail occurred in most
stands within weeks of the fire and gradually increased through postfire
succession. Field horsetail is dominant in the herbaceous layer by 46
to 150 years after fire and persists into the climax stage (300 or more
years) [15,21].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
Hamilton's Research Papers (Hamilton 2006a, Hamilton 2006b) provide
information on prescribed fire and postfire response of many plant
species, including field horsetail, that was not available when this
species review was originally written.
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
References for species: Equisetum arvense
1. Achuff, Peter L. 1989. Old-growth forests of the Canadian Rocky Mountain national parks. Natural Areas Journal. 9(1): 12-26. [7442]
2. Almack, Jon. 1986. Grizzly bear habitat use, food habits, and movements in the Selkirk Mountains, northern Idaho. In: Contreras, Glen P.; Evans, Keith E., compilers. Proceedings--grizzly bear habitat symposium; 1985 April 30 - May 2; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-207. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 150-157. [10815]
3. Baker, William L. 1989. Classification of the riparian vegetation of the montane and subalpine zones in western Colorado. The Great Basin Naturalist. 49(2): 214-228. [7985]
4. Bastin, Harold. 1955. Plants without flowers. New York: Philosophical Library. 146 p. [20696]
5. Beaven, George Francis; Oosting, Henry J. 1939. Pocomoke Swamp: a study of a cypress swamp on the eastern shore of Maryland. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 66: 376-389. [14507]
6. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
7. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands in Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18700]
8. Cloutier, Daniel; Watson, Alan K. 1985. Growth and regeneration of field horsetail (Equisetum arvense). Weed Science. 33: 358-365. [20699]
9. Clute, Willard Nelson. 1928. The fern allies of North America north of Mexico. Joliet, IL: Willard N. Clute & Co.. 278 p. [20695]
10. Corns, I. G. W. 1983. Forest community types of west-central Alberta in relation to selected environmental factors. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 13: 995-1010. [691]
11. Correll, Donovan S. 1956. Ferns and fern allies of Texas. Renner, TX: Texas Research Foundation. 188 p. [20697]
12. Crouch, Glenn L. 1985. Effects of clearcutting a subalpine forest in central Colorado on wildlife habitat. Res. Pap. RM-258. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [8225]
13. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
14. Duckett, J. G.; Duckett, A. R. 1980. Reproductive biology and population dynamics of wild gametophytes of Equisetum. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 80: 1-40. [20700]
15. Dyrness, C. T.; Viereck, L. A.; Foote, M. J.; Zasada, J. C. 1988. The effect on vegetation and soil temperature of logging flood-plain white spruce. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-392. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 45 p. [7471]
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