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| Thomas G. Barnes @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database |
Hybrids: Devil's-tongue hybridizes with other pricklypears (Opuntia spp.), including erect pricklypear (O. stricta), common pricklypear (O. monacantha), cockspur pricklypear (O. pusilla), and twistspine pricklypear (O. macrorhiza) [10,39].
LIFE FORM:
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Devil's-tongue is widely distributed across North America. It occurs from
Ontario south to Florida; west to Montana and New Mexico; and east to
Massachusetts and South Carolina. Devil's-tongue is rare in Ontario, Ohio, and Pennsylvania [50].
The Flora of North America
provides a distribution map of eastern devil's-tongue.
ECOSYSTEMS [37]:
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
STATES/PROVINCES: (key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES
| AL | AR | CO | CT | DE | FL | GA | IA | IL | IN |
| KS | KY | LA | MA | MD | MI | MO | MS | MT | NC |
| NB | NJ | NM | NY | OH | OK | PA | RI | SC | SD |
| TN | TX | VA | WI | WV |
| ON |
Devil's-tongue is commonly found in sandhill prairie communities dominated by big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), and prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia). Other common associates in these communities include Addison's rosette grass (Dichanthelium ovale var. addisonii), goat's rue (Tephrosia virginiana), porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea), Muhlenberg's sedge (Carex muehlenbergii), sand lovegrass (Eragrostis trichodes), sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia), soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca), and western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya) [3,27,29,51,70,72].
In shortgrass prairies dominated by blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides), devil's-tongue can be one of the principal forbs [1,2,79]. Eastern prickly pear also occurs in mixed grass prairies dominated by needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipa comata) and western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) [28].
In the Texas savanna vegetation type, devil's-tongue can occur with a variety of associates including mesquite (Prosopis spp.), acacias (Acacia spp.), oaks, junipers (Juniperus spp.), bluestems, indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), gramas, buffalo grass, and Texas tussockgrass (Nassella leucotricha) [18].
Devil's-tongue is a common associate in a wide variety of habitat types dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) and sand pine (P. clausa). Overstory associates in these types include turkey oak (Quercus laevis), bluejack oak (Q. incana), and sand live oak (Q. geminata). Understory associates include pineland threeawn (Aristida stricta), dwarf palm (Sabal minor), and Adam's needle (Y. filamentosa) [17,32,40,41,84].
In saw-palmetto (Serenoa repens) prairies, devil's-tongue is commonly found with inkberry (Ilex glabra), wiregrass, broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), carpet grass (Axonopus spp.) and sand live oak [22,23].
Devil's-tongue occurs on the drier sites in eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) glades where other associates include post oak (Q. stellata), blackjack oak (Q. marilandica), winged elm (Ulmus alata), yaupon (I. vomitoria) [7,8,9,36]. It also occurs in black oak (Q. velutina) savannas in Indiana [14], black oak-eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) dunes in Michigan [62], and turkey oak sandhills in Georgia [56].
In the upper dune zone of the beach vegetation type in Florida, southeastern devil's-tongue commonly occurs as an associate with aloe yucca (Y. aloifolia) and finger rot (Cnidoscolus stimulosus) [67].Devil's-tongue is a perennial native mat- or clump-forming cactus usually 3 to 4 inches (7.5-10 cm) tall. It occasionally grows to 12 inches (30 cm) in height in Florida. The succulent stem segments, or pads, are 1.5 to 4 inches (3.8-10 cm) long and 1.6 to 2.4 inches (4-6 cm) wide. Areoles on the pads give rise to 0 to 2 spines that are 1 to 2.4 inches (2.5-6 cm) long. Flowers are solitary, 1 to 1.5 inches (2.5-3.8 cm) in diameter. The fruit is a fleshy berry 1 to 1.6 inches (2.5-4 cm) long. The seeds are flattened, orbicular, and 0.2 inch (4.5 mm) in diameter. The root system is shallow and fibrous [10,30,35,59]. A caudex may develop in persistent stems [20].
Physiology: Devil's-tongue is considered highly drought tolerant [2].
RAUNKIAER [66] LIFE FORM:Breeding system: Devil's-tongue is monoecious [10].
Pollination: Devil's-tongue is pollinated by insects [10].
Seed production: Throughout much of its distribution, devil's-tongue relies primarily on seeds for reproduction [2]. Flowers and fruits are 1st produced at 2 years of age [25].
Seed dispersal: Seeds of devil's-tongue are primarily spread when the fruits are eaten by birds and a variety of rodents including rabbits, woodrats, prairie-dogs, mice, and ground squirrels. Ground squirrels may cache the seeds, some of which are later consumed. Cached seeds that are not eaten may germinate and produce new plants [2,26].
Seed banking: No further information is available on this topic.
Germination: Germination rate is reported to be low for seeds of Opuntia species [76]. In laboratory tests, it was found that devil's-tongue seeds collected from rabbit fecal scats had a higher germination rate than seeds collected from unconsumed fruits. Seeds collected from the scats required an average germination time of 41 days and had a germination rate of 25%. Seeds collected from non-eaten fruits required 71 days and germinated at a rate of 18% [26].
Seedling establishment/growth: Although the literature reports that devil's-tongue regenerates by seeds [10], information is lacking on the specifics of seedling establishment and growth.
Asexual regeneration: Layering occurs when pads still attached to the parent plant take root into soil. Detached pads also readily root into soil [76]. The pads can disperse by attaching to animals by the spines [2]. Opuntia species can sprout from the caudex when the aboveground portion of the plant is destroyed [20].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:The moisture regimes in which eastern pricklypear can thrive are quite varied. For example, the cactus occurs in extremely xeric sandstone cedar glades in Kentucky and Tennessee, but also thrives in the saw-palmetto prairies in Florida where the water table is often at or near the ground surface [22,36].
Devil's-tongue is winter hardy, being able to survive on sites where the minimum winter temperatures can drop below 10 oF (-12 oC). The cactus avoids freeze damage by rapidly reducing the water content in cells during cold acclimation [54].
Eastern pricklypear is most commonly found on sandy or gravely soils but can also flourish on organic detritus and silty or loamy soils. It is tolerant of low-nutrient, acid, and alkaline soils [10].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:Fire regimes: Devil's-tongue grows in plant communities with a wide range of fire frequencies from less than 10 years for many grassland and prairie communities to greater than 1,000 years for some of the eastern mixed-hardwood communities. As of this writing (2005), fires ecology studies are lacking for eastern pricklypear. The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where devil's-tongue occurs. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".
| Community or Ecosystem | Dominant Species | Fire Return Interval Range (years) |
| maple-beech-birch | Acer-Fagus-Betula spp. | >1,000 |
| sugar maple | Acer saccharum | >1,000 |
| sugar maple-basswood | Acer saccharum-Tilia americana | >1,000 [83] |
| bluestem prairie | Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium | <10 [52,63] |
| Nebraska sandhills prairie | Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium | <10 |
| bluestem-Sacahuista prairie | Andropogon littoralis-Spartina spartinae | <10 [63] |
| basin big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata | 12-43 [69] |
| mountain big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana | 15-40 [6,21,58] |
| Wyoming big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis | 10-70 (µ=40) [82,88] |
| saltbush-greasewood | Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus | <35 to <100 [63] |
| plains grasslands | Bouteloua spp. | <35 [63,86] |
| blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass | Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii | <35 [63,68,86] |
| blue grama-buffalo grass | Bouteloua gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides | <35 [63,86] |
| grama-galleta steppe | Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii | <35 to <100 |
| blue grama-tobosa prairie | Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis mutica | <35 to <100 |
| blackbrush | Coleogyne ramosissima | <35 to <100 |
| Arizona cypress | Cupressus arizonica | <35 to 200 [63] |
| beech-sugar maple | Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum | >1,000 [83] |
| juniper-oak savanna | Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana | <35 |
| Rocky Mountain juniper | Juniperus scopulorum | <35 [63] |
| cedar glades | Juniperus virginiana | 3-22 [43,63] |
| creosotebush | Larrea tridentata | <35 to <100 |
| Ceniza shrub | Larrea tridentata-Leucophyllum frutescens-Prosopis glandulosa | <35 [63] |
| wheatgrass plains grasslands | Pascopyrum smithii | <5-47+ [63,64,86] |
| pinyon-juniper | Pinus-Juniperus spp. | <35 [63] |
| jack pine | Pinus banksiana | <35 to 200 [31] |
| shortleaf pine | Pinus echinata | 2-15 |
| shortleaf pine-oak | Pinus echinata-Quercus spp. | <10 |
| slash pine | Pinus elliottii | 3-8 |
| slash pine-hardwood | Pinus elliottii-variable | <35 |
| sand pine | Pinus elliottii var. elliottii | 25-45 [83] |
| South Florida slash pine | Pinus elliottii var. densa | 1-15 [60,73,83] |
| Jeffrey pine | Pinus jeffreyi | 5-30 |
| western white pine* | Pinus monticola | 50-200 [5] |
| longleaf-slash pine | Pinus palustris-P. elliottii | 1-4 [60,83] |
| longleaf pine-scrub oak | Pinus palustris-Quercus spp. | 6-10 [83] |
| pitch pine | Pinus rigida | 6-25 [19,46] |
| pocosin | Pinus serotina | 3-8 |
| loblolly pine | Pinus taeda | 3-8 |
| loblolly-shortleaf pine | Pinus taeda-P. echinata | 10 to <35 |
| Virginia pine | Pinus virginiana | 10 to <35 |
| Virginia pine-oak | Pinus virginiana-Quercus spp. | 10 to <35 [83] |
| galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe | Pleuraphis jamesii-Aristida purpurea | <35 to <100 [63] |
| mesquite | Prosopis glandulosa | <35 to <100 [57,63] |
| mesquite-buffalo grass | Prosopis glandulosa-Buchloe dactyloides | <35 |
| Texas savanna | Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa | <10 [63] |
| oak-hickory | Quercus-Carya spp. | <35 [83] |
| oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) | Quercus-Juniperus spp. | <35 to <200 [63] |
| northeastern oak-pine | Quercus-Pinus spp. | 10 to <35 |
| southeastern oak-pine | Quercus-Pinus spp. | <10 [83] |
| coast live oak | Quercus agrifolia | 2-75 [42] |
| white oak-black oak-northern red oak | Quercus alba-Q. velutina-Q. rubra | <35 |
| bur oak | Quercus macrocarpa | <10 [83] |
| oak savanna | Quercus macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium | 2-14 [63,83] |
| shinnery | Quercus mohriana | <35 [63] |
| post oak-blackjack oak | Quercus stellata-Q. marilandica | <10 |
| black oak | Quercus velutina | <35 |
| live oak | Quercus virginiana | 10 to<100 [83] |
| interior live oak | Quercus wislizenii | <35 [5] |
| cabbage palmetto-slash pine | Sabal palmetto-Pinus elliottii | <10 [60,83] |
| blackland prairie | Schizachyrium scoparium-Nassella leucotricha | <10 |
| Fayette prairie | Schizachyrium scoparium-Buchloe dactyloides | <10 [83] |
| little bluestem-grama prairie | Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. | <35 [63] |
A spring fire in a sand lovegrass-little bluestem-prairie sandreed community in Illinois destroyed most of the existing pads of devil's-tongue. Sampling showed good regrowth of the cactus 3 months after fire. However, mortality of the new plants was high in the next 2 years following the burn. Prickly-pear biomass was 34 g/m² 3 months after fire, 26 g/m² 1 year after fire, and 10 g/m² 2 years after fire [3]. In studies of other Opuntia spp., it was found that many plants that sprout following fire are attacked by insects that spread bacterial and fungal infections which subsequently kill the new stems [20].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:The pads of Opuntia spp. can be used as emergency livestock forage after the spines have been singed off [48].
Palatability/nutritional value: Devil's-tongue is low in nutritional value for livestock [48]. The nutritional value of fresh, immature devil's-tongue stems in the United States is as follows [61]:
|
Percent composition |
Percent digestible protein |
||
| ash | 2.6 | cattle | 0.5 |
| crude fiber | 1.2 | horses | 0.4 |
| protein | 0.9 | domestic sheep | 0.5 |
| domestic rabbits | 0.5 | ||
Cover value: Snakes and lizards hide under the pads to avoid the sun. Birds, including northern bobwhites, nest in pricklypear cacti, using the protection offered by the spines [24,47].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:Opuntia seeds germinate most readily when they are fresh. Dried seeds require scarification to induce germination [4]. Devil's-tongue is easily established from stem cuttings buried to approximately three-fifths of their length [76], and can be artificially propagated using tissue culture [85].
OTHER USES:There is some indication that Opuntia spp. may increase in response to heavy grazing. However, researchers are not sure if pricklypear populations respond to a reduction of the preferred forage species, or if the grazing animals simply provide for improved spread and establishment of the cacti by transporting the pads on their bodies [13].
Opuntia spp. can be problematic in pastures grazed by domestic sheep and goats. The spines can cause bacterial infection in the mouth and intestinal tract, and the seeds can cause rumen impaction [80].
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