Reproductive success of Canada lynxes fluctuates in an approximate 10-year cyclical manner corresponding with the snowshoe hare cycle. During periods of snowshoe hare abundance, Canada lynx birth rates typically range from 73% to 93% for adults and 33% to 100% for yearlings [80,97]. One to two years following a snowshoe hare decline, the birth rate declines [97]. Adult females may continue to conceive but live births are few or none [80,97]. Of  3,130 adult female Canada lynx carcasses examined in the Yukon, Tanana, and Copper basins of Alaska, the number of Canada lynx placental scars/female decreased from 3.7 to 1.4 scars during a snowshoe hare decline phase [74].

Gestation period and litter size: Gestation is 60 to 65 days [59,73,91]. Typically, 1 or 2 kittens are born from May to July [58,73,91,96,116]. Yearling and adult lynxes may produce litters 6 weeks earlier than average during periods of snowshoe hare abundance [70]. In western Montana, litter size ranged from 1 to 5 kittens, with an average of 2.75 (n=20) [17]. During periods of snowshoe hare abundance, yearling Canada lynxes may experience increased reproductive rates, and all age classes of females produce larger litters [73,80] that average 4 to 5 kittens [97].

Development: Canada lynx kittens remain with their mother for 9 to 10 months following birth to nurse and learn how to hunt [23,58,80,97].

Social organization: Canada lynxes are generally solitary [11,28]; however, they may travel in groups consisting of a female with her kittens, 2 adult females with their kittens, or an adult female with an adult male during the breeding season [23,80]. An adult female may remain in contact with her offspring for the female's lifetime [23].

Habits: Canada lynxes are most active between dusk and dawn [28,91], and hide during the day [91]. They are active year-round [28].

Dispersal: Dispersal of Canada lynxes is characterized as juveniles dispersing from their natal area or as a response to snowshoe hare declines [85]. Kittens remain with their mother through their first winter, and natal dispersal occurs from late April to early May [97]. Maximum natal dispersal distance for females is 6.0 miles (9.7 km) [91]. Canada lynxes are capable of long-range exploratory movements of up to 600 miles (1,000 km) [97].

Mortality: Mortality of Canada lynxes is influenced primarily by the relative abundance of snowshoe hares and the amount of trapping by humans. During periods of snowshoe hare scarcity, starvation is the most significant cause of natural mortality for lynxes [58]. One year following a snowshoe hare decline near Whitehorse, Yukon, 90% (n=161) of the Canada lynx population was reduced due to starvation, dispersal, and a collapse in recruitment [97]. Female Canada lynxes may lose their litters shortly after parturition during food shortages [70]. The mean mortality rate of 8 Canada lynx kittens over 2 years in north-central Washington during a period of snowshoe hare scarcity was 88% [58]. Mortality for kittens may increase to 100% one to two years following a snowshoe hare decline [80,97]. During periods of snowshoe hare abundance, natural mortality of juvenile and adult Canada lynxes is low. Juvenile mortality may range from 17% to 50% [97].

Trapping may be a significant cause of mortality [23,97]. Mortality rates may range from 50% to 90% in areas where trapping of Canada lynxes is allowed [23,80] and 0% to 27% where Canada lynxes are protected [58]. Because yearling Canada lynxes are dependent on their mothers for survival, mortality may increase if their mothers are trapped [80] (see Trapping).

Canada lynxes are negatively associated with topographic complexity [24,59], and typically occur where low topographic relief creates continuous forests of various ages [58,120]. In Washington, Idaho, and Montana, Canada lynxes occur at elevations above 4,000 feet (1,200 m); in Wyoming, occurrence is above 6,500 feet (1,900 m); and in Colorado and Utah, Canada lynxes are typically found above 8,000 feet (2,400 m) [60]. In a study conducted in Alaska, Canada lynxes preferred hilly terrain 984 feet to 3,527 feet (300-1,075 m) in elevation [15].

Stand- and landscape-level habitat: Habitat selection by Canada lynxes may be based on the abundance of snowshoe hares [53]. Snowshoe hares are associated with disturbed and subclimax communities adjacent to dense cover [43,58,86,120]. These areas are created mainly on clearcuts and burns [86]. Optimum habitat for snowshoe hares is 15- to 40-year old, second-growth stands containing a dense, brushy understory and a high density of saplings [58,59,120]. See Preferred Habitat for more information about snowshoe hare habitats. Successional changes that favor snowshoe hares may favor Canada lynxes [57]. Canada lynxes prefer 20- to 30-year-old second-growth forests [36,36,58,60,61,80,105,122] for hunting snowshoe hare and dense climax forests for denning and traveling [60,72]. The optimal age of forests used for denning and traveling was not available in the literature as of 2007.

Twenty-seven adult Canada lynxes (12 females and 15 males) preferred dense coniferous/mixedwood and deciduous forests for habitat on the Mackenzie Bison Sanctuary in the Northwest Territories. Dense coniferous forest was characterized as 50% to 100% canopy cover of black spruce or white spruce, jack pine, and tamarack (Larix laricina) or mixed coniferous/deciduous forest. Dense deciduous forest was characterized as dense- to closed-canopy deciduous forest (usually quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)) or mixed deciduous forest and tall >7 feet (2 m) willow (Salix spp.) [86].

Vegetation structure and season may influence habitat preference for Canada lynxes. Canada lynxes preferred regenerating habitat (about 30 years following a wildfire) over mature white spruce and alpine-subalpine habitats in Whitehorse, Yukon. Regenerating lodgepole pine stands were preferred over white spruce-willow (Salix spp.) stands of the same age. During winter, Canada lynxes preferred riparian willow (Salix spp.) stands over mature white spruce and alpine areas, probably due to high snowshoe hare numbers. Eighty-six percent (n=103) of radio-collared Canada lynxes were located in regenerating habitat where snowshoe hares were most abundant. For more details about habitat preference based on season, age, and sex of Canada lynxes, see Mowat and Slough [71].

Foraging habitat: The Canada lynx, a specialist carnivore, prefers foraging in habitats frequented by the snowshoe hare [40,58,59,61]. These habitats include 20- to 30-year-old forests [36,58,60,61,80,105,122] that regenerated after logging, fire, or silvicultural disease [58,60]. Canada lynxes require cover for stalking prey and for security. They may cross forest openings ≤328 feet (100 m) in width, but do not hunt in these areas [58,60].

Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares were most abundant in 20-year-old lodgepole pine stands compared to 43- to 80-year-old and >100-year-old lodgepole pine stands in the Okanogan National Forest, Washington [58,60]. In boreal mixedwood forests of Ontario, preferred habitat for Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares was approximately 20-year-old boreal mixedwood forests containing black spruce, balsam fir, quaking aspen, and paper birch. Canada lynx tracks were rarely found in <20-year-old postharvest stands or mature stands [105]. Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares preferred regenerating mixed conifer habitats dominated by balsam fir, white spruce, black spruce, and paper birch approximately 20 years following logging in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The short-term impact (<20 years) of clearcutting on Canada lynxes in the study was uncertain [80].

Canada lynx distribution is influenced more by prey abundance than by forest structure. Immediately following timber harvest and fire in the North American boreal forest, snowshoe hare and Canada lynx populations are typically very low due to the lack of forage. Populations of both species increase rapidly during the "establishment stage" (see table below for definition) due to ample cover and forage, and decrease over time as shrub density decreases with succession [36]:

Denning habitat: Preferred denning habitat for female Canada lynxes is late-seral forests containing woody debris such as logs or upturned stumps for security and thermal cover [18,20,29,42,58,60,119]. In the Pend Oreille and Salmo-Priest areas of northeastern Washington, log density was the most important component in predicting den density for Canada lynxes [42]. On the Okanogan National Forest in Washington, female Canada lynxes utilized 250-year-old subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce or lodgepole pine forests to raise kittens. Den sites typically were 1 to 5 acres (0.4-2.0 ha) in area, within 3.5 miles (5.6 km) of prey habitat, and contained 40 downed logs/150 feet², suspended 1 to 4 feet (0.3-1.2 m) above the ground [58,60]. To predict potential Canada lynx denning microsite availability, Gilbert and Pierce [42] suggest a simple line intercept method of assessing downed log density.

There is no evidence that climax forests are required for denning and raising kittens in the northeastern United States. Northeastern forests are generally younger, more mesic, diverse, and structurally complex than other geographic regions that Canada lynxes inhabit [53].

Travel cover: Canada lynxes tend to avoid open areas when traveling [58,60,77,78]. During winter in north-central Washington, Canada lynxes preferred crossing meadows <328 feet (100 m) [58,60]. Favored travel routes for the Canada lynx include ridges and saddles, and cover should be maintained in these areas [58]. Koehler [58] recommends a tree density of >180 stems/acre and a tree height >6.0 feet (1.8 m), especially where snow depth is >2.0 to 3.0 feet (0.6-0.9 m). Midsuccessional stages may provide travel cover and connectivity within a forested landscape for Canada lynxes when traveling [59]. In western portions of Canada lynx habitat, maintaining travel corridors between populations may help ensure long-term viability of isolated populations [58,60].

Home range and density: Canada lynxes are highly mobile and occupy large home ranges within a variety of habitats [8]. Home range size may vary between 15.5 km² to 221 km² [15,17,23,58,61,80,91] and depends on the sex, age, population density, prey density, and survey method used [67]. Home ranges for males are generally larger than for females [59,97]. Home ranges may overlap, mainly between Canada lynxes of different sexes and ages [73]. Adult Canada lynxes of the same sex are usually hostile to each other and keep exclusive home ranges [15]. The same home range is sometimes maintained over several years [58]. Kittens may remain on their mother's home range for an unknown period of time [70].

The mean home range size for 5 male Canada lynxes in north-central Washington was 69 km² (SD 28 km²) for males and 39 km² (SD 2 km²) for females. The same home ranges were used during all seasons, and for ≥2 years male home ranges completely overlapped female ranges. The mean annual density of adults and kittens over a 2-year period was 2.6 Canada lynxes/100 km² [58].

Female and male Canada lynxes in western Montana maintained large home ranges, perhaps due to low snowshoe hare populations [17]:

Mean home range size for Canada lynxes in Riding Mountain National Park, Manitoba, was 156 km² for 2 females and 221 km² for 1 male. These were the largest home range sizes reported in the literature as of 2007. The home ranges of the 2 female Canada lynxes overlapped spatially and temporally, whereas the home range of the male did not overlap with that of any other Canada lynxes [23].

Summer home ranges of female and male Canada lynxes on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, increased 108% and 73%, respectively, compared to winter home ranges [80]:

Densities of Canada lynx in boreal forests are primarily determined by the abundance of snowshoe hares [73,74,75]. The density of Canada lynxes in Alberta increased from 2.1 to 7.5 Canada lynxes/100 km² as snowshoe hare numbers increased [73]. Peak density of Canada lynxes near Whitehorse, Yukon, was 44.9 Canada lynxes/100 km². This may have been due to good Canada lynx habitat (the area burned at unknown severity approximately 40 years prior to the study), low trapping intensity, and a delayed response to decreasing snowshoe hare densities. The lowest density in the study was 2.0 Canada lynxes/100 km², during low snowshoe hare densities [97]. During the low-density phase of the snowshoe hare cycle, Canada lynx density in northern areas of Canada lynx's range is typically 2 to 3 Canada lynxes/100 km² [58].

On Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, the density of Canada lynxes was approximately 20 Canada lynxes/100 km² [80].

Population trends: Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares exhibit an approximate 10-year cyclical population cycle in northern portions of their ranges [36,54,63,109]. In southern portions of their ranges, snowshoe hare and Canada lynx populations are not cyclical [58,120,122]. This may be due to greater habitat fragmentation, resulting in lower but more stable snowshoe hare populations, and the presence of predators and competitors that do not occur in northern areas [58,120].

The 10-year population cycle of Canada lynxes occurs in phases, coinciding with the snowshoe hare cycle. The "low population density phase" lasts 3 to 5 years. The "population increase phase" lasts approximately 3 years and is a result of high fecundity, high kitten survival, and low adult mortality. The "peak phase" lasts approximately 2 years, with little population growth. The "crash phase" occurs 1 to 2 years following the crash in the snowshoe hare population, and is due to high natural mortality, a collapse in recruitment, and increased dispersal rates [75,97].

Causes of the approximate10-year population cycle are debated, and may be a result of climate change [93], fire-return intervals [38], parasite-host, predator-prey, and/or snowshoe hare-vegetation oscillations [120]. Fox [38] states that in Canada, the snowshoe hare-Canada lynx oscillation cycle may be caused by forest fires. After reviewing fire history and Canada lynx fur returns for 150 years in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, the approximate 10-year snowshoe hare-Canada lynx cycle exhibited similarity to the fire-return interval cycle, which occurred approximately every 10 years [38].

Monitoring population trends of Canada lynxes requires conducting winter tracking surveys [58]. Koehler [58] suggests surveying areas 3 times each winter to minimize survey variability, conducting GIS inventories of potential Canada lynx habitats, and minimizing timber harvesting, forest pests, and road access.

Diversity of Canada lynx prey items increases during the summer and during periods of snowshoe hare scarcity [80]. Prey items may include red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) [52,58,73,100,110], ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) [16,90,110], great gray owls (Strix nebulosa) [33], mice (Peromyscus spp.) [58], voles (Clethrionomys spp. and Microtus spp.) [70], fishers (Martes pennanti) [87], red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) [70,101], and moose (Alces alces) and woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) carcasses [70].

Canada lynxes may prey on ungulates such as woodland caribou calves, deer (Odocoileus spp.) calves, and Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli) lambs, but ungulate dietary importance is insignificant [58,91,95,101].

There is high gene flow among Canada lynxes despite geographic separation of distances up to 1,926 miles (3,100 km), so management should focus on maintaining connectivity of habitat within the core of the Canada lynx's geographic range [74,92]. Slough and Mowat [97] recommend a minimum effective size of 500 km² of high-quality habitat for a Canada lynx refugium during years when home range sizes for males and females do not fluctuate widely. Coordinating management across multiple ownerships is needed to prevent fragmentation of Canada lynx habitat. For detailed information about providing appropriate habitat to maintain Canada lynx populations, see the website on Canada lynx conservation and assessment strategy.

Silviculture: In intensively managed forests, even-aged regenerating forest stands should be interspersed with mature forest to provide quality habitat for the Canada lynx [2,53,88]. To produce diverse habitat, stripcutting or blockcutting may benefit Canada lynxes in boreal forests [88]. If maximizing the preharvest mammalian community is a management goal, the rate of successional convergence to mature forest may be increased by doing the following: 1) leave "moderate" amounts of downed woody matter in the harvested area; 2) leave snags and dead wood in close proximity to live trees to form clumps; and 3) leave >30% of mature trees as clumped residuals in harvested areas [36].

A short-term result of clearcutting is reducing snowshoe hare and Canada lynx densities [36,80]. In the long term, snowshoe hare abundance generally increases in clearcut areas due to an increase in browse plants and cover [36,58,60,61,80,105,122]. Clearcuts ≤15 years old probably have minimal value to Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares [80] and may not be optimal habitat for either species for 30 years [59]. In Maine, snowshoe hares did not recolonize spruce-fir habitat until 6 to 7 years following clearcutting, and populations peaked 20 to 25 years following clearcutting [65]. Large clearcuts may potentially act as barriers to Canada lynx movement [59]. Parker and others [80] recommend keeping clearcuts relatively small and maintaining a mosaic of clearcuts with mature forest and uneven-aged forest stands.

Recent trends away from clearcutting to partial harvest in northern Maine may negatively affect densities of snowshoe hares and Canada lynxes due to their preference for even-aged forests that regenerate after clearcutting or fire. More research is needed to examine the effects of specific types of partial harvest on the Canada lynx [53].

In west-central Alberta, Canada lynxes would likely benefit from short-rotation harvesting of quaking aspen [83].

Precommercial thinning decreased snowshoe hare abundance in forests dominated by lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and western larch (Larix occidentalis) in western Montana. This silvicultural practice may lead to an ecologically significant loss of prey available to the Canada lynx. When managing forests for high snowshoe hare abundance, the authors suggest a precommercial thinning method in which 20% of the total stand is retained in uncut 0.62 acre (0.25 ha) patches [45].

Coarse woody debris: Logs and upturned stumps in mature forests are important denning sites for the Canada lynx [18,19,20,29,42,96,119] (see Preferred Habitat). A lack of suitable den sites may reduce Canada lynx recruitment [96]. Forest thinning and salvage logging reduce the availability of coarse woody debris for denning Canada lynxes. They may also reduce the abundance of some prey species, which could be "detrimental" to Canada lynxes [20]. Snowshoe hares also utilize coarse woody debris for denning [22].

Trapping: Trapping is a major cause of Canada lynx mortality in some parts of Canada. However, due to high fecundity, especially following periods of increasing snowshoe hare availability, populations of Canada lynxes may increase rapidly [97].

An important factor in the management of Canada lynx is the vulnerability of family groups to trapping (see Development) [23]. If adult females accompanied by kittens are trapped, orphaned kittens may die of starvation [23]. During periods of prey scarcity, in which kitten survival is low, Canada lynx populations may decrease substantially due to starvation and trapping [15,23,80]. Slough and Mowat [97] and Parker and others [80] suggest restricting trapping during early winter to avoid removing adult females from their kittens.

FIRE EFFECTS AND USE

SPECIES: Lynx canadensis

• DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
• HABITAT-RELATED FIRE EFFECTS
• FIRE USE

The Canada lynx requires a landscape containing early [31,51,58,60,86] and late-successional [60] habitats and may be positively or negatively affected by fire [56,86,88,121]. In general, wildlife species that are associated with early successional vegetation may benefit from fuel reduction treatments. Species associated with late-successional habitat with features such as a closed canopy, a dense understory, and/or coarse woody debris may be negatively affected by fuel reduction treatments. The Canada lynx requires both, so the effects of fuel reduction on Canada lynxes may vary with the management history of an area, current habitat condition, landscape setting, and prescribed fire attributes such as size, type, frequency, and season. Canada lynxes may not be affected by fuel reduction on the stand level due to their large home ranges [84].

Snowshoe hares often abandon fresh burns if cover is sparse and nutritious browse is available elsewhere [55]. Snowshoe hares attain peak populations 5 to 30 years following fire, especially in habitat dominated by quaking aspen and birch (Betula spp.) [51]. In northern latitudes, stands approximately 40 years old may provide optimal conditions for snowshoe hares. In southern latitudes where succession occurs at a quicker rate, 15- to 30-year-old stands may provide the best habitat for snowshoe hares [38]. Little data exist on the use of recent burns by Canada lynxes [36]. Fifteen- to 30-year-old burned areas provide optimal foraging habitat for Canada lynxes in boreal forests [36,37,51,58,60,61,80,96,105,122], but 5- to 50-year-old burned areas may be used [79,86]. In the western United States, fire creates seral landscapes that are often dominated by lodgepole pine, which benefit snowshoe hares and Canada lynxes [71]. Canada lynxes require mature forests for denning and raising kittens; however, no information is currently available about the optimal age forest age for denning habitat. On the Okanogan National Forest in Washington, female Canada lynxes utilized 250-year-old subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce or lodgepole pine forests to raise kittens [58,60] (see Preferred Habitat).

Thirty-five of 39 Canada lynx dens were located in 29- to 36-year-old burned areas near Whitehorse, Yukon. Seventy-two percent of the 301 km² study area had been burned or partially burned prior the study. Details about the severity of the fire were not included. Regenerating trees and shrubs were predominantly lodgepole pine, white spruce, quaking aspen, subalpine fir, and willow (Salix spp.). Of the 35 Canada lynx dens found in burned areas, 33 were located under the deadfall of fire-killed coniferous trees. Four dens were located in unburned areas: 1 was beneath a mature subalpine fir, 2 were beneath willow thickets, and 1 was beneath a mature white spruce blowdown [96].

In northwestern Montana, Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares were found most often in forest stands on an 80-year-old burn. Twenty-three of 29 radio-telemetry locations for 1 adult male and 1 adult female Canada lynx were in densely stocked stands of young (<80 years old), 100% lodgepole pine stands; 3 locations were in mature (>100-year-old) subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce stands, and 3 locations were in young (<80 years old) Douglas-fir-western larch stringers along stream bottoms [61].

On the Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares preferred a 25- to 28-year-old burned area to a 6- to 9-year-old burn or a 100- to 115-year-old mature forest. The forest in the 3 study areas consisted of predominantly black spruce with scattered white spruce or tamarack. Most of the 25- to 28-year-old burn (197 km²) was in the midsuccessional stage, but severely burned lowlands were in the shrub-sapling stage. Paper birch and quaking aspen dominated the overstory, and conifer saplings <16  feet (5 m) tall began to shade the understory in areas of dense regeneration. Maximum shrub height was 13.5 feet (4.1 m). Median percent canopy cover was 35%, and most debris piles had collapsed but not yet decayed [79].

The 6- to 9-year old burn (133 km²) was in the early successional tall shrub-sapling stage. The overstory was dominated by paper birch and quaking aspen saplings 16 feet (5 m) tall. Black spruce and tamarack seedlings were <3 feet (1 m) tall and grew among dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa) and beauverd spirea (Spiraea stevenii). Severely burned areas were in the moss-herb stage. Unburned areas comprised 5.9% of the area. Maximum shrub height was 9.2 feet (2.8 m). Median percent canopy cover was 5%, and leaning and fallen trees created debris piles ≤ 4.9 feet (1.5 m) tall [79].

Mature, 100- to 150-year-old coniferous forest was dominated by black spruce and tamarack 2 to 8 inches (5-20 cm) DBH. Maximum shrub height was 5.9 feet (1.8 m), and median percent canopy cover was 30%. Despite Canada lynx's preference for midsuccessional, postfire forest, mature forest stands may be important for denning and finding alternative prey items during snowshoe hare scarcity [79].

Coarse woody debris: Following fire, it is important to leave fire-killed trees to stabilize the soil and contribute to wildlife habitat for the Canada lynx and its prey. If salvage logging is implemented, the following are recommended: 1) strictly limit the removal of dead trees to roaded areas within the urban-wildlife interface; 2) use low-impact logging techniques such as high lead cables to minimize soil damage [30]; 3) maintain sufficient densities and diameter classes of woody debris for wildlife use; and 4) avoid sensitive sites such as severely burned areas, roadless and riparian areas, and sites with erosive or fragile soil [21,104].

Canada lynxes require coarse woody debris for denning and raising kittens [18,20,29,42,58,60,119] (see Preferred Habitat). Eliminating slash by broadcast burning following timber harvest may have a negative impact on the Canada lynx. Leaving piles of slash in an area may compensate for decreased structural diversity in even-aged monocultures and clearcut areas by providing cover. Slash piles may be most valuable when they are located within or near forested cover [2].

The following table provides fire-return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where Canada lynx is important. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

Lynx canadensis: REFERENCES

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