Index of Species Information
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Meleagris gallopavo
Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Meleagris gallopavo
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/animals/bird/mega/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
MEGA
COMMON NAMES :
wild turkey
turkey
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name for wild turkey is Meleagris
gallopavo Linnaeus [1]. The six subspecies are distinguished by
coloration, size, and distribution [1,18]:
Meleagris gallopavo ssp. silvestris Vieillot (eastern wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. osceola Scott (Florida wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. mexicana (Gould's wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. merriami Nelson (Merriam's wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. intermedia Sennett (Rio Grande turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. gallopavo (Mexican wild turkey)
ORDER :
Galliformes
CLASS :
Bird
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Meleagris gallopavo
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The wild turkey has been successfully introduced in most states outside
of its native range and has also been introduced in southern
Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba, and southern Ontario [1,8]. It is
resident locally from central Arizona and central Colorado to northern
Iowa, central Michigan, southern New Hampshire, and southwestern Maine
south to southern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and Florida; and since being
introduced into the western states, ranges throughout the continental
United States and Hawaii [8,18]. The original ranges of subspecies of
wild turkey in North America are listed below [18]:
M. g. ssp. silvestris - most of the eastern and midwestern United States,
from southern Ontario south through northern
Florida and from the Atlantic Coast to Kansas
and Nebraska
M. g. ssp. osceola - Florida Peninsula
M. g. ssp. mexicana - north-central Mexico
M. g. ssp. merriami - Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado
M. g. ssp. intermedia - Texas, northern Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas
M. g. ssp. gallopavo - east-central Mexico
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
dFRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
STATES :
| AL |
AK |
AZ |
AR |
CA |
CO |
CT |
DE |
FL |
GA |
| HI |
ID |
IL |
IN |
IA |
KS |
KY |
LA |
ME |
MD |
| MA |
MI |
MN |
MS |
MO |
MT |
NE |
NV |
NH |
NJ |
| NM |
NY |
NC |
ND |
OH |
OK |
OR |
PA |
RI |
SC |
| SD |
TN |
TX |
UT |
VT |
VA |
WA |
WV |
WI |
WY |
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K022 Great Basin pine forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K031 Oak - juniper woodlands
K032 Transition between K031 and K037
K037 Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K059 Trans-Pecos shrub savanna
K061 Mesquite - acacia savanna
K062 Mesquite - live oak savanna
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K079 Palmetto prairie
K080 Marl - Everglades
K081 Oak savanna
K083 Cedar glades
K084 Cross Timbers
K086 Juniper - oak savanna
K087 Mesquite - oak savanna
K090 Live oak - sea oats
K091 Cypress savanna
K092 Everglades
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K115 Sand pine scrub
SAF COVER TYPES :
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
28 Black cherry - maple
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
43 Bear oak
44 Chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
63 Cottonwood
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
84 Slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
89 Live oak
98 Pond pine
102 Baldcypress - tupelo
103 Water tupelo - swamp tupelo
105 Tropical hardwoods
109 Hawthorn
210 Interior Douglas-fir
217 Aspen
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Wild turkeys predominantly inhabit oak (Quercus spp.) and pine (Pinus
spp.)-oak forests across North America [18,21]. They also frequent
bottomland hardwood sites such as those dominated by cottonwood and
aspen (Populus spp.). In the West wild turkeys use ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa)-Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)-oak forests and
mature mixed conifer forests [6]. In the Southwest they use pinyon
(Pinus spp.)-juniper (Juniperus spp.) types mixed with oak [23]. In the
Southeast wild turkeys inhabit loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), slash pine
(P. elliottii), and pond pine (P. serotina) forests mixed with
hardwoods. They also use baldcypress (Taxodium distichum)-water tupelo
(Nyssa aquatica) types [24].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Meleagris gallopavo
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS :
Mating Season - February through April
Incubation - 28 days; 10 to 13 eggs; preccocial young
Age of Maturity - 1 year, but may not mate until 2 to 3 years of age;
polygamous
Longevity - can live to 10 or 12 years, but 5 years is considered "old";
annual mortality of 50% in a population is common
[13,18,21,26]
PREFERRED HABITAT :
The wild turkey occurs in a variety of habitats from bottomland hardwood
forests to upland woods and pine forests. These forests must be
interspersed with pastures, grasslands, or agricultural land and other
openings that can provide feeding, dusting, and brooding habitat [22].
In Oregon, wild turkeys prefer to roost in large ponderosa pines on
easterly slopes. They also may roost in logging slash on north slopes
between 2,000 and 3,000 feet (610-914 m). In this same part of Oregon,
wild turkeys prefer ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir-oak stands in spring and
summer, mixed conifer stands in spring and winter, and oak stands in
winter [6]. Eastern Texas brooding hens selected low stocked stands
with abundant herbaceous cover [5]. In the Black Hills of South Dakota
wild turkeys nest in slash and on rock outcrops [20]. In Arizona they
will roost in valleys and in ponderosa pines on northerly slopes [23].
In Massachusetts, wild turkeys select agricultural land during winter,
where they have a better chance of surviving severe winters than if they
remained in the forests [27]. In the fields, wild turkeys can feed on
manure.
COVER REQUIREMENTS :
Wild turkeys need mature, open forests (for traveling and seeing
predators) interspersed with grassy openings. The amount of openings
required by wild turkeys varies from 10 to 25 percent of the total
range. Clearings should be spaced so that hens with broods do not have
to travel more than 1 to 2 miles (1.6-3.2 km) [22]. Areas considered
unsuitable include large tracts of even-aged pine on short rotations,
intensely farmed fields, and areas with a lot of human activity. Healy
(in Shroeder [22]) estimated that the best cover for poults in the
Southeast is a grass and forb mixture 15.7 to 27.6 inches (40-70 cm)
tall and with a biomass of 600 to 3,000 kilograms per hectare dry
weight. This should be mixed with trees and a 60 to 100 percent cover
in the understory. For more detailed habitat suitability index models,
see Schroeder [22].
FOOD HABITS :
Wild turkeys eat fruits, seeds, tubers, bulbs, and greens of locally
common plants. They also eat animals such as snails, spiders,
grasshoppers, millipedes, and salamanders [22]. Grasses are usually
important spring foods, while mast and fruits are important during the
fall and winter. Poults rely on insects for protein. Some plant food
species of the wild turkey include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida),
wild cherry (Prunus serotina), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), hackberry
(Celtis occidentalis), hickory (Carya spp.), hawthorn (Crateagus spp.),
oak, cottonwood and aspen (Populus spp.), pinyon, juniper, prickly pear
(Opuntia spp.), sumac (Rhus spp.), wheat (Triticum aestivum), alfalfa
(Medicago sativa), rye (Secale cereale), soybean (Glycine max), paspalum
(Paspalum spp.), and panic grass (Panicum spp.) [18,22,23]. Wild
turkeys must be near drinking water on a daily basis [26].
PREDATORS :
Predators of the turkey include humans, coyote (Canis latrans), skunks,
weasels, mink (Mustelidae), raccoon (Procyon lotor), opossum (Didephis
virginiana), feral dog (Canis commonis), bobcat (Felis rufus), foxes
(Vulpes spp., Urocyon spp.), squirrels, chipmunks (Sciuridae), hawks
(Buteo spp., Accipiter spp.), raven, crow, magpie (Corvidae), and
various snake species [18,21,22].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
The wild turkey is a popular game species that has been introduced to
almost every state outside the limits of its original range [21].
However, it is not very tolerant of human activity and has suffered from
urbanization as well as intense farming and conversion of native forest
land to pine plantations [11,22]. Wild turkeys are susceptible to
domestic poultry diseases [26]. Pesticide spraying to reduce vegetation
may temporarily result in decreased turkey use of an area [2].
Wild turkey populations declined following cutting, burning, and
chaining of pinyon-juniper types in Arizona [23]. Partially cut units
showed only a temporary reduction in turkey use. Where one-third of a
large tract (800 ha) was treated, use decreased from 32 percent to 3
percent during summer. These authors recommended that cleared areas be
less than 300 feet (90 m) wide and that cover in travel corridors
between feeding and roosting areas be maintained.
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Meleagris gallopavo
DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS :
Spring fires may destroy nests. Fast-moving fires may kill newly
hatched poults, but once wild turkeys can fly, fires are probably not
much of a problem; and losses to the population are negligible [15].
HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS :
Annual prescribed burns in longleaf-wiregrass (Aristida spp.)-bracken
fern (Pteridium aquilegia) types of Georgia stimulated the growth of
important wild turkey food plants like legumes and panic grass [4].
Following prescribed fires in the Georgia Piedmont, total seed
production of desirable food plants increased during postburn year 1
from 6.4 kilograms per hectare to 26.4 kilograms per hectare [7].
Spring, late summer, and winter fires in Texas slash pine plantations
seriously reduced mast production but increased fruiting of flowering
dogwood [19]. Loblolly pine stands in South Carolina were burned to
determine the effects of fire on wild turkeys [8]. One plot, burned
every winter for 20 years showed an increase in desired food plants like
winged sumac (Rhus copallina), beggartick (Desmodium spp.), and
partridge pea (Cassia nictitans). An adjacent plot burned every summer
for 20 years and one unburned plot showed little to no value for
wildlife.
FIRE USE :
Prescribed fire can be used to stimulate the growth of food plants and
promote early spring green up of grasses [22]. Fire can also reduce
litter, exposing seeds and insects; and reduce brush so that turkeys can
be wary of predators [14,15,25]. Fire can be used to create edges to
increase nesting habitat [25]. It can also reduce parasites such as
ticks and lice [16]. Devet and Hopkins [8] recommended burning
loblolly-longleaf pine stands every 3 years, and burning every 4 to 6
years in Piedmont regions. For burning recommendations of
mast-producing oak species see the desired species in the FEIS database.
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
References for species: Meleagris gallopavo
1. American Ornithologists' Union. 2004. The A.O.U. check-list of North American birds, 7th edition, [Online]. American Ornithologists' Union (Producer). Available: http://www.aou.org/checklist/index.php3 [2005, January 10]. [50863]
2. Beasom, Samuel L.; Scifres, Charles J. 1977. Population reactions of selected game species to aerial herbicide applications in south Texas. Journal of Range Management. 30(2): 138-142. [408]
3. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
4. Buckner, James L.; Landers, J. Larry. 1979. Fire and disking effects on herbaceous food plants and seed supplies. Journal of Wildlife Management. 43(3): 807-811. [11966]
5. Campo, Joseph J.; Swank, Wendell G.; Hopkins, Curtis R. 1989. Brood
habitat use by eastern wild turkeys in eastern Texas. Journal of Wildlife Management. 53(1): 479-482. [17691]
6. Crawford, John A.; Lutz, R. Scott. 1984. Merriam's wild turkey. Final Report on Project No. PR-W-79-R-2. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]. 39 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17156]
7. Cushwa, Charles T.; Martin, Robert E. 1969. The status of prescribed burning for wildlife management in the Southeast. Proceedings, 34th North American Wildlife and Natural Resource Conference. 34: 419-428. [15652]
8. DeGraaf, Richard M.; Scott, Virgil E.; Hamre, R. H.; [and others]. 1991. Forest and rangeland birds of the United States: Natural history and habitat use. Agric. Handb. 688. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 625 p. [15856]
9. Devet, David D.; Hopkins, Melvin L. 1968. Response of wildlife habitat to the prescribed burning program on the National Forests in South Carolina. Proceedings, Annual Conference of Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners. 21: 129-133. [14633]
10. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
11. Felix, A. C., III; Sharik, T. L.; McGinnes, B. S. 1986. Effects of pine conversion on food plants of northern bobwhite quail, eastern wild turkey, and white-tailed deer in the Virginia piedmont. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 100: 47-52. [17692]
12. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
13. Hoffman, Richard W. 1991. Spring movements, roosting activities, and home-range characteristics of male Merriam's wild turkey. The Southwestern Naturalist. 36(3): 332-337. [17088]
14. Hurst, George A. 1978. Effects of controlled burning on wild turkey poult food habits. Proceedings, Annual Conference of Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 32: 30-37. [14648]
15. Hurst, George A. 1981. Effects of prescribed burning on the eastern wild turkey. In: Wood, Gene W., ed. Prescribed fire and wildlife in southern forests: Proceedings of a symposium; 1981 April 6-8; Myrtle Beach, SC. Georgetown, SC: Clemson University, Belle W. Baruch Forest Science Institute: 81-88. [14813]
16. Jacobson, H. A.; Hurst, G. A. 1979. Prevalence of parasitism by Amblyomma americanum on wild turkey poults as influenced by prescribed burning. Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 15: 43-47. [16067]
17. Kessell, Stephen R. 1981. A review and evaluation of succession modeling approaches. Final report to: Cooperative Agreement Supplement No. 11 between Gradient Modeling, Inc. and Intermountain Station. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1981. 42 p. [1334]
18. Latham, Roger M. 1976. Complete book of the wild turkey. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. 118 p. [17688]
19. Lay, Daniel W. 1956. Effects of prescribed burning on forage and mast production in southern pine forests. Journal of Forestry. 54: 582-584. [13828]
20. Rumble, Mark A.; Anderson, Stanley H. 1987. Turkey habitat use and nesting characteristics in ponderosa pine. In: Fisser, Herbert G., ed. Wyoming shrublands: Proceedings, 16th Wyoming shrub ecology workshop; 1987 May 26-27; Sundance, WY. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Department of Range Management, Wyoming Shrub Ecology Workshop: 36-39. [13917]
21. Schorger, A. W. 1966. The wild turkey; its history and domestication. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 625 p. [17689]
22. Schroeder, Richard L. 1985. Habitat suitability index models: eastern wild turkey. Biol. Rep. 82(10.106). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fish and Wildlife Service. 33 p. [17686]
23. Scott, Virgil E.; Boeker, Erwin L. 1977. Responses of Merriam's turkey to pinyon-juniper control. Journal of Range Management. 30(3): 220-223. [16742]
24. Still, Hugh R.; Baumann, David P. 1989. Wild turkey activities in relation to timber types on the Francis Marion National Forest. In: Waldrop, Thomas A., ed. Proceedings of pine-hardwood mixtures: a symposium on management and ecology of the type; 1989 April 18-19; Atlanta, GA. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-58. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 137-141. [10270]
25. Stoddard, Herbert L. 1961. Wild turkey management. In: The Cooperative Quail Study Association: May 1, 1931-May 1, 1943. Misc. Publ. No. 1. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 426-433. [Reprinted from: Transactions, 21st American game conference; 1935 January 21-23; New York, NY. Washington, DC: American Game Association.]. [15077]
26. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1981. Habitat management for turkeys. Salina, KS: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 4 p. [17687]
27. Vander Haegen, W. Matthew; Sayre, Mark W.; Dodge, Wendell E. 1989. Winter use of agricultural habitats by wild turkeys in Massachusetts. Journal of Wildlife Management. 53(1): 30-33. [17690]
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