Index of Species Information
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Athene cunicularia
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| Burrowing owl in an agricultural field. Image by Gerald Holmes, California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo, Bugwood.org. |
Introductory
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
Howard, Janet L. 1996. Athene cunicularia. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available: www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis//animals/bird/atcu/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION:
ATCU
SYNONYMS:
Speotyto cunicularia (Molina)[2,58]
COMMON NAMES:
burrowing owl
TAXONOMY:
The scientific name of burrowing owl is Athene cunicularia (Molina).
Subspecies of burrowing owl occurring in the United States and
Canada are [2,58]:
Athene cunicularia hypugaea: burrowing owl, western burrowing owl, Colorado burrowing owl
Athene cunicularia floridana: Florida burrowing owl
ORDER:
Strigiformes
CLASS:
Bird
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
No special status
OTHER STATUS:
State Status: Burrowing owl is listed as endangered in Minnesota and
Iowa and as a species of special concern in California, Oregon,
Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
Oklahoma, and Florida [34,46].
Canadian Status: Burrowing owl is listed as threatened in Alberta,
British Columbia, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan [69].
Other: Burrowing owl is classified as a species of special concern on
the Audubon Society's Blue List [68].
WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Athene cunicularia
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Burrowing owl is a pan-American species. In North America, it is
distributed from British Columbia and Manitoba south through the western
half of the United States, Louisiana, Florida, the Caribbean islands,
and Mexico. Distribution continues through Central America to western
South America, from Columbia south to Tierra del Fuego in Argentina
[2,35,61].
Distribution of North American subspecies: Athene cunicularia subsp.
hypugaea is distributed from southern interior British Columbia east to
south-central Manitoba and south to west-central Mexico. Populations in
British Columbia are reintroduced; prior to the 1986 reintroduction,
burrowing owl had not been sighted in British Columbia since 1979. The
range of S. c. ssp. hypugaea once extended to Minnesota and Iowa, but
burrowing owl is probably extirpated from those states [28].
Athene cunicularia subsp. floridana occurs in Florida and the Bahama
islands. In Florida, the subspecies was formerly restricted to central
and southern portions of the state, but has expanded its range northward
nearly to Georgia [28].
ECOSYSTEMS:
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
STATES:
| AZ |
CA |
CO |
FL |
ID |
KS |
LA |
MT |
NE |
NV |
| NM |
ND |
OK |
OR |
SD |
TX |
UT |
WA |
WY |
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS:
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K027 Mesquite bosque
K030 California oakwoods
K035 Coastal sagebrush
K039 Blackbrush
K041 Creosotebush
K042 Creosotebush-bursage
K043 Paloverde-cactus shrub
K044 Creosotebush-tarbush
K047 Fescue-oatgrass
K048 California steppe
K049 Tule marshes
K050 Fescue-wheatgrass
K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass
K053 Grama-galleta steppe
K054 Grama-tobosa prairie
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe
K057 Galleta-three-awn shrubsteppe
K058 Grama-tobosa shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass
K065 Grama-buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass-grama-buffalograss
K069 Bluestem-grama prairie
K070 Sandsage-bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K076 Blackland prairie
K077 Bluestem-sacahuista prairie
K079 Palmetto prairie
K085 Mesquite-buffalograss
K088 Fayette prairie
SAF COVER TYPES:
68 Mesquite
242 Mesquite
250 Blue oak-foothills pine
255 California coast live oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES:
101 Bluebunch wheatgrass
102 Idaho fescue
103 Green fescue
104 Antelope bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
105 Antelope bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
106 Bluegrass scabland
107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass
201 Blue oak woodland
202 Coast live oak woodland
204 North coastal shrub
205 Coastal sage shrub
212 Blackbush
214 Coastal prairie
215 Valley grassland
216 Montane meadows
217 Wetlands
301 Bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama
302 Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass
303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass
304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
305 Idaho fescue-Richardson needlegrass
306 Idaho fescue-slender wheatgrass
307 Idaho fescue-threadleaf sedge
308 Idaho fescue-tufted hairgrass
309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass
310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama
311 Rough fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
312 Rough fescue-Idaho fescue
313 Tufted hairgrass-sedge
314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue
316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue
317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
318 Bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
319 Bitterbrush-rough fescue
320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue
322 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany-bluebunch wheatgrass
323 Shrubby cinquefoil-rough fescue
324 Threetip sagebrush-Idaho fescue
401 Basin big sagebrush
402 Mountain big sagebrush
403 Wyoming big sagebrush
502 Grama-galleta
505 Grama-tobosa shrub
506 Creosotebush-bursage
507 Palo verde-cactus
508 Creosotebush-tarbush
601 Bluestem prairie
602 Bluestem-prairie sandreed
603 Prairie sandreed-needlegrass
604 Bluestem-grama prairie
605 Sandsage prairie
606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
608 Wheatgrass-grama-needlegrass
609 Wheatgrass-grama
610 Wheatgrass
611 Blue grama-buffalograss
612 Sagebrush-grass
613 Fescue grassland
614 Crested wheatgrass
615 Wheatgrass-saltgrass-grama
701 Alkali sacaton-tobosagrass
702 Black grama-alkali sacaton
703 Black grama-sideoats grama
704 Blue grama-western wheatgrass
705 Blue grama-galleta
706 Blue grama-sideoats grama
707 Blue grama-sideoats grama-black grama
708 Bluestem-dropseed
709 Bluestem-grama
710 Bluestem prairie
711 Bluestem-sacahuista prairie
712 Galleta-alkali sacaton
713 Grama-muhly-threeawn
714 Grama-bluestem
715 Grama-buffalograss
716 Grama-feathergrass
717 Little bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas wintergrass
718 Mesquite-grama
719 Mesquite-liveoak-seacoast bluestem
720 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (dunes)
721 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (plains)
722 Sand sagebrush-mixed prairie
723 Sea oats
724 Sideoats grama-New Mexico feathergrass-winterfat
725 Vine mesquite-alkali sacaton
726 Cordgrass
727 Mesquite-buffalograss
PLANT COMMUNITIES:
Burrowing owl occurs in grasslands, shrub-grasslands, and savannas [63].
BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Athene cunicularia
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS:
Life history: Burrowing owls begin nesting in spring in burrows that
they line with cow, horse, or bison (Bison bison) dung [63]. In eastern
Colorado, burrowing owls lay eggs in May [16]. The female does all
incubation and brooding [28]. Clutch size is large, from 6 to 11 eggs
[31], with an average of 6.5 eggs [51]. Eggs are laid at intervals of
24 to 72 hours. Incubation period is 27 to 30 days and begins when the
first egg is laid, resulting in a multi-aged brood [16]. Owlets are
born partially covered with down and with eyes closed. Eyes open at 5
days of age [28]. Owlets move among nest burrows when 10 days old [31].
They fly well by 6 weeks of age, and fledge when about 44 days old [43].
At Davis, California, a DNA fingerprinting study of burrowing owl showed
that 37 percent of adult owls were raising owlets other than their
biological offspring. Owlet movement and polygamy accounted for some of
the discrepancy; intraspecific brood parasitism may also be a factor
[38].
Migration: Burrowing owls are migratory, but little is known of their
migration routes and wintering areas. The majority of burrowing owls
that breed in Canada and the northern United States are thought to
migrate south during September and October and north during March and
April. Burrowing owls migrating to Saskatchewan arrive in early May
[28]. Banding studies suggest that Canadian burrowing owls migrate
further south than burrowing owls in the United States [33]. Christmas
birds counts show California as the most important American state for
wintering burrowing owls, followed by New Mexico, Florida, Arizona, and
Texas, respectively [36]. Florida, the Southwest, and southern
California have year-round burrowing owl residents as well as winter
migrants [28].
PREFERRED HABITAT:
Burrowing owls occupy grasslands, shrub steppes, and savannas. They also
occur in other open areas such as agricultural lands, old fields,
extensive forest clearings, airports, golf courses, and spacious
residential zones [1,3,23,50,63,76].
Home range: In central Saskatchewan, home range size for six
radio-tagged males varied from 0.06 to 1.92 square miles (0.14-4.81 sq
km), with an average of 0.96 square mile (2.41 sq km). Diurnal
activities were restricted to within 825 feet (250 m) of the burrow
[30].
COVER REQUIREMENTS:
Burrowing owls typically live in colonies, using burrows excavated by
other animal species for cover [63]. Burrows are used for breeding,
nesting, and brooding [28]. When selecting a burrow, the owls prefer
burrows with low, open cover that provide good horizontal visibility
[23]. Burrowing owls are commonly found in plant communities in early
stages of succession because cover is low [45]. Long-abandoned burrows
are usually not used because the burrow entrance has become overgrown.
Burrows adjacent to burrows occupied by other burrowing owls are
preferred, although burrowing owl pairs have nested alone if other
burrowing owls were not in the area [28]. Burrowing owls often evict
other animal species from desirable burrows [63].
In the Plains States, burrowing owls use black-tailed prairie dog
(Cynomys ludovicianus) burrows most often [45,56,63], although burrows
of ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.) are also frequently used [17].
Deserted black-tailed prairie dog towns become unsuitable as burrowing
owl habitat within 1 to 3 years [9,10]. White-tailed prairie dog (C.
leucurus) burrows are used infrequently because plant cover surrounding
white-tailed prairie dog burrows is usually too high for burrowing owl
requirements [48]. In California and Idaho, burrowing owls primarily use
ground squirrel burrows [23]. Florida burrowing owls occupy raccoon
(Procyon lotor), snake (Serpentes), and gopher tortoise (Gopherus
polyphemus) burrows [63]. Other burrows commonly occupied by burrowing
owl throughout North America include those of badger (Taxidea taxus),
pocket gophers (Geomyidae), fox (Vulpes and Urocyon spp.), and
rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.) [22,26,63]. Length and depth of the
burrow depends upon the requirements of the species that dug it [28].
In friable soil, burrowing owls dig their own burrows when suitable ones
are not available [23,63]. In Forida, where burrowing rodents are
scarce, Florida burrowing owls dig their own burrows in sandy soils. The
burrows are about 6.5 to 9 feet long (2-3 m) and less than feet 3.3 feet
(1 m) deep when burrowing owls excavate them [49].
Burrowing owls use ground cavities other than burrows for cover. On the
Snake River Plain of Idaho, they sometimes use cavities in basalt
outcrops [40,53]. Burrowing owls also use human-constructed cavities
such as culverts. Pipe can be laid down for artificial nests [11]. In
California, hatching success rate of burrowing owl eggs laid in
artificial nests was 55 percent [43].
FOOD HABITS:
Burrowing owls hunt in both day and night. They hunt on the wing, from
prairie dog mounds or other high spots on the ground, and from
fenceposts or other elevated perches. Prey is either run down on foot
or caught by hovering and swooping [63]. Arthropods, mainly insects,
form the majority of the burrowing owl diet. An overall assessment of
the burrowing diet in western North America, calculated from 3,564 prey
items, included 90.0 percent invertebrates (mostly insects), 6.9 percent
mammals (mostly rodents), 2.0 percent herptiles, and 0.3 percent birds
[59]. Young prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), ground squirrels, pocket
gophers, voles (Microtus spp.), mice (Heteromyidae, Muridae, and
Zapodidiae), young cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.), and young jackrabbits
(Lepus spp.) are common mammalian prey. Grasshoppers (Acrididae),
Jerusalem crickets (Gryllacrididae), and beetles (Coleoptera) are the
most common arthropod prey, although other arthropod taxa are taken as
available [22,24,45,63]. Herptiles are a large component of the Florida
burrowing owl's diet [28].
Seasonal variation: In Oklahoma, vertebrates comprised 85 percent of
the burrowing owl winter diet, while arthropods comprised almost 100
percent of the summer diet [9]. A study of the spring and summer diets
of burrowing owl on the shortgrass prairie of Colorado showed that most
rodents were taken in April. Most Jerusalem crickets were taken June,
most grasshoppers in July, and most dung beetles (Scarabaeinae) in
August. Ground beetles (Carabidae) were taken in quantity throughout
spring and summer [47].
PREDATORS:
Rattlesnakes and prairie dogs raid burrows for burrowing owl eggs and
nestlings [4,63]. Hawks (Accipiter and Buteo spp.), falcons (Falco
spp.), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), coyote (Canis latrans),
domestic dog (C. domesticus), badger, skunks (Spilogale, Mephitis, and
Conepatus spp.), weasels (Mustela spp.), and bobcat (Lynx rufus) prey on
both adult and nestling burrowing owls [28].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Factors in population decline: Intensive agriculture or development
results in loss of burrows, loss of foraging habitat, and creation of
suboptimal nesting habitat. It also increases vulnerability to
predation [26] and may reduce the chances of unpaired owls to find mates
[28]. Loss of habitat has been cited as factor of decline in the Bay
Area and Central Valley of California [13,23] and elsewhere. Breeding
Bird Survey data show that in the Great Plains, burrowing owl
populations declined an average of 0.71 percent per year from 1966 to
1987 [54].
Programs to destroy prairie dogs and other burrowing rodents have
greatly reduced burrowing owl populations by reducing the amount of prey
and burrows available [4,23,28,63]. Poisons used to destroy rodents
probably have a direct effect on burrowing owls: at least one
rodenticide (carbamate) has been shown to lower burrowing owl
reproduction and survival when sprayed over nest burrows [37]. The
effects of consuming poisoned prey on burrowing owl are not well known
[28]. However, weight of breeding burrowing owl in pastures where
strychnine-coated grain was used to control ground squirrels was
significantly lower than on control pastures, suggesting either a
sublethal effect or less available food [36].
Reintroduction: Burrowing owls were reintroduced in British Columbia in
1986. As of 1993, 91 fledglings had been produced. No returns of
burrowing owl reintroduced in Manitoba or Minnesota have been recorded
[28].
Florida burrowing owl: Human activities have had a beneficial effect on
Florida burrowing owl. Mowing, cattle grazing [44], and wetland
drainage have increased the subspecies' range. Residential and
industrial areas currently support the largest populations [49].
Grazing effects: Moderate grazing can benefit burrowing owl by keeping
vegetation around burrows short [23]. In Florida, cattle often break
through the sandy soils and damage burrows, but overall, cattle grazing
has benefitted the Florida burrowing owl [28]. Overstocking can harm
burrowing owl, however. Burrowing owl have become extirpated from some
islands of Tierra del Fuego by domestic sheep trampling their burrows
[32].
FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Athene cunicularia
DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS:
Fire-related mortality of burrowing owl has not been documented in the
literature. Burrowing mammals that stay in their burrows during fire
are usually unharmed; burrowing owls in their burrows during fire
probably are probably unharmed as well. Some burrowing mammals have
asphyxiate in their burrows during fire; this may also happen to
burrowing owls in their burrows during fire [14]. When caught outside
their burrows during fire, adult burrowing owls probably escape fire
easily; some young that cannot yet fly may be injured or killed.
HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS:
Fire affects burrowing owl in two ways: by altering vegetation and by
altering their prey base [3].
Fire effects on vegetation: Wright and Bailey [66] identified three
major fire-dependent plant associations (grassland, semidesert
grass-shrub, and sagebrush-grass) in which burrowing owl occur.
Frequent fire can maintain or improve burrowing owl habitats by reducing
plant height and cover around burrows and by controlling woody plant
invasion. For example, 3 months following a May prescribed fire on the
Nebraska sandhills prairie, where burrowing owl occur, vegetative cover
on burned sites averaged 16 percent less than on adjacent unburned sites
[7]. One year after a May 1965 wildfire on Nebraska sandhills prairie,
vegetative growth was 53 to 91 percent greater on unburned than on
burned sites [65].
Fire in grasslands has been shown to reduce encroachment of woody shrubs
and trees [66]. Mixed-grass prairie of South Dakota, for example, has
become invaded by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in the absence of
fire; it is estimated that in the Black Hills, 50 percent of
presettlement prairie has converted to ponderosa pine woodland [20].
Fire effects on prey: Periodic fire in grasslands probably increases
prey diversity for raptors including burrowing owl, and may increase
overall prey density [3]. Rodent populations in grasslands usually show
an initial drop after fire; loss of cover makes rodents more vulnerable
to predators such as burrowing owl [12]. After a 1- to 3-year reduction
in prey, rodent numbers usually match or exceed prefire levels [66].
Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) numbers have returned to prefire
levels in the first postfire growing season [12]. Ground squirrels, an
important burrowing owl prey, also increase in number after fire [5,21].
Since arthropods form the majority of the burrowing owl's diet, fire
effects on burrowing owl's arthropod prey are an important management
consideration. Because beetles, grasshoppers, and crickets form the
majority of the burrowing owl's arthropod diet, they are discussed here.
Beetles are a diverse order, and the effects of fire on beetles are
variable. Generally, however, beetle populations in grassland habitats
recover quickly from fire. After a March wildfire on an Illinois
prairie, beetle numbers initially dropped 15 percent, but nearly
equaled beetle numbers on an adjacent unburned prairie within a month.
Rove beetle (Aleocharinae) numbers on burned sites, however, stayed
below those on adjacent unburned prairie throughout the month of the
study [52]. On Minnesota tallgrass prairie, Tester and Marshall [60]
recorded an increase in beetles following fire. On the Konza Prairie
Research Natural Area of Kansas, scarab beetle (Scarabaeideae) grub
numbers were significantly (p<0.05) greater on annually burned prairie
than on unburned prairie [55]. (Data for other beetle families were not
collected.)
Most grasshopper species increase after spring fire due to increased
nutritional quality of new grasses [39,52,60]. On native tallgrass
prairie in Kansas, grasshopper numbers were highest after early spring
prescribed burning, followed by mid-spring burning; numbers were lowest
on late-spring burned sites [39]. In a review of fire effects on
insects, Warren and others [64] reported that grasshoppers and crickets
(Orthoptera) generally increase after fire in any season; however, "hot"
grass fires that occur before Orthoptera have developed wings may reduce
their numbers. Jerusalem crickets are a key element in the diet of
burrowing owl in many areas. Unlike most Orthoptera, they are wingless
even as adults. They habitually burrow or hide under rocks, where they
are probably protected from fire. After rangeland fire in northern
Utah, Jerusalem crickets occurred exclusively on burned areas [25].
Florida burrowing owl: Periodic fire is important in keeping the sandy
soils open for burrowing. It also maintains the early successional
stages that burrowing owl and most of their herptile and mammal prey
require [42].
FIRE REGIMES:
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
References for species: Athene cunicularia
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7. Bragg, Thomas B. 1978. Effects of burning, cattle grazing, and topography on vegetation of the choppy sands range site in the Nebraska Sandhills Prairie. In: Hyder, Donald N., ed. Proceedings, 1st international rangeland congress; 1978 August 14-18; Denver, CO. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management: 248-253. [4468]
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12. Cook, Sherburne F., Jr. 1959. The effects of fire on a population of small rodents. Ecology. 40(1): 102-108. [230]
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19. Gartner, F. Robert; Thompson, Wesley W. 1973. Fire in the Black Hills forest-grass ecotone. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1972 June 8-9; Lubbock, TX. No. 12. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 37-68. [1002]
20. Gartner, F. Robert; White, E. M. 1986. Fire in the Northern Great Plains and its use in management. In: Komarek, Edwin V.; Coleman, Sandra S.; Lewis, Clifford E.; Tanner, George W., compilers. Prescribed fire and smoke management: Symposium proceedings: 39th annual meeting of the Society for Range Management; 1986 February 13; Kissimmee, FL. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management: 13-21. [3094]
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23. Gould, Gordon I., Jr. 1985. A case for owls. In: Proceedings, 7th annual wildlife conference; 1983 February 4-6; San Francisco, CA. San Francisco, CA: San Francisco Zoological Society: 14-21. [22601]
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25. Hansen, J. D.; Sutton, J. E. 1985. Insect activity on a burned site after a range fire. In: Proceedings, 38th annual meeting of the Society for Range Management; 1985 February 11-15; Salt Lake City, UT. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. Abstract. [26508]
26. Haug, Elizabeth A. 1985. Observations on the breeding ecology of burrowing owls in Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan. 89 p. Thesis. [26174]
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