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Ceanothus integerrimus

Table of Contents

• INTRODUCTORY
• DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
• BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• FIRE EFFECTS AND MANAGEMENT
• FIRE CASE STUDIES
• MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• REFERENCES

INTRODUCTORY

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AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION FEIS ABBREVIATION COMMON NAMES TAXONOMY SYNONYMS LIFE FORM
	Gary A. Monroe @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

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Deerbrush hybridizes with mountain whitethorn (C. cordulatus), woolyleaf ceanothus (C. tomentosus), and Lemmon's ceanothus (C. lemmonii) [59].

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

Deerbrush grows in the understories of conifer and oak (Quercus spp.) communities [40,55,56,83] and in scattered patches within timberlands and woodlands. Patches of decadent deerbrush are common in open Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri) stands [83]. Deerbrush often dominates early successional stages of low-elevation conifer communities [33]. About 16 thousand acres (6,400 ha) of California's timberland is occupied by deer brush fields [16].

In Arizona chaparral, deerbrush occurs in Turbinella oak (Q. turbinella)-shrub and Pringle manzanita (A. pringlei) communities [20,23]. Deerbrush also occurs in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica and P. p. var. scopulorum) and riparian forests of Arizona. In New Mexico, it occurs primarily in riparian forest [21].

Plant associates: Shrub associates in Turbinella oak-shrub communities of Arizona include birchleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides), banana yucca (Yucca baccata), and yellowleaf silktassel (Garrya flavescens) [21].

Associates in montane chaparral include manzanitas, especially whiteleaf manzanita (A. viscida), pale serviceberry (Amelanchier pallida), chaparral whitethorn (Ceanothus leucodermis), oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor), and twinberry honeysuckle (Lonicera involucrata) [33].

Shrub associates in coniferous forest of California and Oregon include Sierra mountain misery (Chamaebatia foliosus) 6, whitethorn ceanothus (Ceanothus cordulatus), gooseberries and currants (Ribes spp.), and manzanitas [22].

Overstory tree associates of deerbrush not previously listed as Kuchler [48] or SAF [24] types include incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), sugar pine (P. lambertiana) [46,55], giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) [45,85], bigcone Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa), interior live oak (Q. wislizenii), Nuttall's scrub oak (Q. dumosa) [33], California buckeye (Aesculus californica) [9], and Baker cypress (Cupressus bakeri) [71].

Publications describing plant communities in which deerbrush is a dominant component of the vegetation follow.

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS

Deerbrush is a native, drought-deciduous shrub reaching 3 to 18 feet (1-6 m) in height at maturity. It is loosely branched and spreading in form. Flowers are borne in compound clusters. The fruit is a sticky capsule containing small, obovoid seeds [31,59]. Nitrogen-fixing actinomycetes form nodules in deerbrush roots [17,25].

Deerbrush stems, excluding the root crown, live about 35 years. The stem of one specimen has been aged at 47 years. Maximum age attained by roots and root crowns has not been determined, but life span of these organs can be more than 35 years if periodic top-kill occurs [22].

Seed reproduction: Deerbrush first produces seed at about 4 years of age [21]. Ripe seed is forcibly ejected from the capsule when the capsule dries and splits [64]. Deerbrush is a seed banking species. Seed is stored in extremely high densities in duff and the upper few centimeters of mineral soil. Anderson [4] estimated that the deerbrush seed population in a mixed coniferous forest in northern California was greater than 2 million seeds per hectare. Viability of the seed averaged 90.6 percent in the laboratory [4]. Similarly, Kauffman and Martin [37,38] reported a range of 60 to 90 percent viability of deer brush seed from three northern California mixed-conifer forests. Viability of deerbrush seed is generally high, and the seed is long-lived. Quick and Quick [62] reported 90 percent viability of 24-year-old seed. Other researchers have suggested that deerbrush seed remains viable for well over 100 years [4,22,62].

Seed is dormant until the hard seedcoat is scarified by fire or mechanical disturbance such as logging [19,22]. Optimal temperatures for scarification range from 170 to 195 degrees Fahrenheit (77-90 deg C) [39]. High-consumptive fire (> 90% of duff burned) kills most seed in duff, but most seed in mineral soil survives. Anderson [4] found that following one high-consumptive fire, 12.5 percent of seed in duff and 52.4 percent of seed in mineral soil was viable. Seed requires stratification follow scarification, and usually germinates in spring [39]. Keeley [41] reported that light inhibited germination, an unusual response, and that charate (charred wood powder) had no effect on germination.

Best establishment occurs with seed in bare mineral soil [7,22]. In a greenhouse study, seeds planted at one-half inch (1 cm) when in shade and at 1 inch (2.5 cm) when in sun showed better seedling emergence than seeds planted at greater or lesser depths. Emergence did not occur with seeds planted on the soil surface [1]. Nearly all seedling establishment occurs in the first postfire spring; establishment after the second postfire year is rare [22]. Plants typically average 3 to 4 inches (8-18 cm) in height at the end of their first growing season and 8 inches (20 cm) in height at the end of the second growing season [21,22,77].

Vegetative reproduction: Sprouts grow more rapidly than seedlings, reaching a height of 30 or more inches (76 cm) in their first year [22]. Age at which deerbrush sprouts first produce seed is undocumented; however, sprouts of most Ceanothus species produce seed after 3 to 6 years [21]. When deerbrush plants are top-killed before they become decadent, roots remain alive, and root crowns retain the ability to sprout for years beyond the 35-year life expectancy of other stem tissue. Without periodic top-kill, root systems and root crowns of decadent plants die [22].

Elevational ranges of deerbrush are as follows:

FIRE EFFECTS AND MANAGEMENT

• FIRE EFFECTS
• FUELS AND FIRE REGIMES
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Most soil-stored deerbrush seed survives fire [15]. Seed in heavy duff may be killed by moderate to severe fire.

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

Fire adaptations and plant response to fire:
Fire adaptations: Deerbrush recovers from fire by establishing from seed and by sprouting from the root crown [12,22,30,37,38,42,45,56]. Seedling establishment is the most common method of posfire regeneration. Heat scarification of seed and increased light after fire favor deerbrush seedling establishment, and seedlings are often dense in the first few years after fire [15,30]. Deerbrush is apparently a weak sprouter after fire.

Deerbrush appears to be important in early postfire succession but only a minor species in mature mixed-conifer forest. Deerbrush in the understory of mixed coniferous forest is usually decadent, and decadent plants show poor sprouting response after top-kill. Seedling establishment, however, is usually good, even if deerbrush plants are no longer present in the understory [22,37,38].

Plant response to fire: After soil-stored seed is scarified by fire, deerbrush seedlings establish in great numbers. Most seedlings establish in the first postfire growing season [15,22]. Natural thinning reduces seedling density as the stand ages. After a July 1942 wildfire consumed a deer brush stand on the El Dorado National Forest, deerbrush density was about 300,000 seedlings per acre at postfire year 1; 10,000 per acre at postfire year 10; 2,500 at postfire year 20; and less than a few hundred seedlings at postfire year 30 [22]. A similar pattern occurred after a "fairly intense" prescribed fire in a giant sequoia grove in Kings Canyon National Park. Burning was conducted in fall 1969. No deerbrush seedlings occurred on the unburned control plot. Deerbrush seedling establishment on burned plots follows [45].

Arizona chaparral: A dense stand of Pringle manzanita on the Tonto National Forest was burned to reduce fire hazard, increase browse, and increase water yield. Shrubs were sprayed with 2,4-D prior to the fire to increase their flammability. Deerbrush was apparently absent from the area prior to burning. At postfire year 1, deerbrush seedling density was [61]:

Deerbrush sprouts from the root crown after fire, but sprouting response may be weak [21,42]. Sprouts on older plants have died in their first year even when watered in summer (Howard 1997 personal observation [34]). Park records from Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park note numerous sites where deerbrush seedlings occurred after fire, but only two sites where sprouts were found after fire. In sequoia-mixed conifer forest in Sequoia National Park, deerbrush sprouts occurred on 2 of 30 plots that were prescribe burned in November. After October wildland fire on the same watershed, sprouts occurred on 2 of 6 plots (Keifer 1997 personal communication [42]). If they survive, deerbrush sprouts may grow rapidly. On a site on the Stanislaus National Forest, deerbrush sprouts grew 30 inches (75 cm) in the first postfire year [22]. Data on long-term survival of deerbrush sprouts are lacking.

Frequent top-kill by fire or other disturbance (approximate fire return interval of less than 4 years) can eliminate deerbrush [21,22].

• Fuels
• Fire regimes

Fire regimes: Fire regimes: Chaparral - Historic fire return interval in chaparral has been estimated at 20 to 30 years [60]. Fires perpetuated a mosaic of age classes on chaparral landscapes, which decreased the chances for widespread fires. The intense, fast-moving chaparral fires tended to be confined by natural fuel breaks formed from age-class boundaries and topographic features [18].

Mixed conifer - These forests were characterized by frequent, low-intensity surface fires that favored ponderosa and sugar pines, oaks, and sprouting shrubs over shade-tolerant, fire-sensitive species such as incense-cedar and white fir (Abies concolor) [18]. Based upon fire scar data, fire return intervals averaged 8 years [68,84] and ranged from 4 to 20 years [44].

In the Klamath Geographic Province of Oregon and California, deerbrush occurs in the moderate fuel type [7].

When prescribed burning in ponderosa pine with an understory of deer brush and manzanita, Biswell [12] recommended broadcast burning in one or more of three steps: (1) broadcast burning; (2) in heavy timber, piling coarse dead material by hand and burning; (3) in open areas, crushing coarse dead material with a bulldozer and burning. In order to keep fire severity low, he recommended burning in fall, winter, or spring when soil is thoroughly wet, and setting fires so that they burn downhill. Pine needles may be dry enough to carry fire within a day or so after rain. After broadcast burning, remaining coarse dead fuels are piled in open areas within timber. In areas open enough for a bulldozer, the bulldozer can be used to crush the slash. Slash is broadcast burned after it is dry.

Broadcast burning was used on a shrubfield on the El Dorado National Forest to enhance forage for livestock and wildlife. A dense deerbrush stand originated following a 1924 wildfire in ponderosa pine and incense-cedar. By postfire year 18, browse was inaccessible to ungulates. Small ponderosa pine and incense-cedar that survived the previous fire were slashed to enhance fuels. Prescribed burning was conducted in July 1942 and resulted in "an intense fire that consumed most of the plant material." Deerbrush seedling establishment and survivorship was as follows [22]:

FIRE CASE STUDIES

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION FOR THIS FIRE CASE STUDY:
Howard, Janet L., compiler. 1997. Fire Case Study: Understory Composition by Season of Burning/Plumas NF. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/ [].

SOURCES:
Unless otherwise indicated, the information in this Fire Case Study comes from the following papers:

Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, R. E. 1985. A preliminary investigation on the feasibility of preharvest prescribed burning for shrub control. In: Proceedings, 6th annual forestry vegetation management conference; 1984 November 1-2; Redding, CA. Redding, CA: Forest Vegetation Management Conference: 89-114. [37].

Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, Robert E. 1985. Shrub and hardwood response to prescribed burning with varying season, weather, and fuel moisture. In: Donoghue, Linda R.; Martin, Robert E., eds. Weather--the drive train connecting the solar engine to forest ecosystems: Proceedings, 8th conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May 2; Detroit, MI. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 279-286. [38].

Kauffman, John Boone. 1986. The ecological response of the shrub component to prescribed burning in mixed conifer ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California. 235 p. Dissertation. [39].

Kauffman, J. B.; Martin, R. E. 1990. Sprouting shrub response to different seasons and fuel consumption levels of prescribed fire in Sierra Nevada mixed conifer ecosystems. Forest Science. 36(3): 748-764. [36].

SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION:
early spring/moderate
late spring/moderate
early fall/moderate
late fall/moderate

The Quincy site is on the Massak Unit of the Quincy Ranger District, Plumas National Forest. It is located 9.9 miles (16 km) east of Quincy, California [36,37,38,39].

PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY:
Challenge site - The overstory was a mature mixed stand of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), and sugar pine (P. lambertiana) with occasional mature California black oak (Quercus kelloggii) and tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) [38,39]. The site was logged in the late 1870s. Mean basal area of the stand was 80.52 sq m/ha; productivity class was I - II [39]. The shrub layer was predominantly tanoak. Other common shrubs included deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus), waveyleaf ceanothus (C. foliosus), poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum), and Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii). The herb layer was dominated by rainbow iris (Iris hartwegii) and was sparsely populated with Bolander's bedstraw (Galium bolanderi) and deervetch (Lotus spp.) [39].

Quincy site - The overstory was a mixed forest of Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and incense-cedar [38,39]. Except for select insect damage cuts in the 1960s and 1970s, the site has never been logged. Mean basal area was 48.01 sq m/ha; productivity class was III - IV [39]. The most common understory shrubs were deer brush, California black oak, thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), and sharpleaf snowberry (Symphoricarpos acutus) [36]. Dense thickets of stunted Douglas-fir and incense-cedar were also present in the understory. The most abundant herbs were western fescue (Festuca occidentalis) and broadleaf lupine (Lupinus latifolius subsp. latifolius) [39].

TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE:
Season of burning was timed to correspond with the phenological development of understory shrubs. Season of burning by phenological stage was [39]:

SITE DESCRIPTION:
Challenge - The study area is on the Yuba River watershed. Elevation is 3,317 feet (1,005 m). Mean annual precipitation is 72 inches (1,800 mm). Aspect is generally west (280-300 deg). Slopes vary from 35 to 55% [39].

Quincy - The study area is on the Plumas River watershed. Elevation is 4,053 feet (1,351 m). Mean annual precipitation is 36 inches (900 mm). Half of the study area is on north- to northwest-facing slopes (310-340 deg), and half is on south- or west-facing slopes (170-180 deg and 260 deg). Slopes vary from 35 to 75% [39].

FIRE DESCRIPTION:
The purpose of the prescribed fire treatments was to determine understory vegetation response to varying season and consumption levels of fire. Four fire treatments were used: (1) early spring, moderate-consumption; (2) late spring, high-consumption; (3) early fall, high-consumption; (4) late fall, moderate-consumption. Prescriptions called for the early spring fire to be implemented as soon as it was possible to carry a fire; the late spring fire to be implemented as late in the spring as safely possible; the early fall fire to be implemented as early in fall as possible and before a major precipitation event; and the late fall fire to be implemented as late in the fall as possible and after a major precipitation event had occurred. If other variables could be met to ensure a safe burn, high-consumption fires were to be conducted when duff moisture content was less than 15 to 20%, and moderate-consumption fires were to be conducted when duff moisture content was greater than 30%. Strip- and backfires were used. Fall burning was conducted from mid-September to mid-October, 1983. Spring burning was conducted from April to June, 1984. Fire and fuel variables are given below. Data are means. Different letters indicate a significant difference (P< 0.1) among means [37,38,39].

Challenge Site:

Quincy Site:

FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES:
Mature deerbrush experienced 100% mortality on both sites under all four fire treatments [37,39]. Deerbrush seedlings established on fall-burned sites but not on spring-burned sites. An early/late seasonal pattern of seedling establishment not was apparent with the fall fires: on the Challenge site, more seedlings established on late fall-burned sites; on the Quincy site, more seedlings established on the early fall-burned site. Number of deerbrush seedlings before and after treatment follows [37].

FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS:
Sprouting: Decadent deerbrush in the understory of a mature forest is unlikely to sprout after prescribed fire.

Seedling establishment: Spring fire - Few, if any, deerbrush seedlings are liable to establish after spring prescribed fire. Deerbrush seed requires stratification following scarification, and spring fire may not allow enough time for the complete embryonic development that occurs with overwinter stratification.

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION FOR THIS FIRE CASE STUDY:
Howard, Janet L., compiler. 1997. Fire Case Study: Understory Composition by Season of Burning/Challenge Experimental Forest. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/ [].

SOURCE:
The information in this Fire Case Study comes from the following paper:

Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, Robert E. 1985. Shrub and hardwood response to prescribed burning with varying season, weather, and fuel moisture. In: Donoghue, Linda R.; Martin, Robert E., eds. Weather--the drive train connecting the solar engine to forest ecosystems: Proceedings, 8th conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May 2; Detroit, MI. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 279-286. [38].

SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION:
early spring/moderate
late spring/high
early fall/high
late fall/moderate

STUDY LOCATION:
Challenge Site: This prescribed fire took place in the Challenge Experimental Forest on the La Porte Ranger District, Plumas National Forest. The study site was located approximately 2.5 miles (4.0 km) southeast of Challenge, California.

Quincy Site: The Quincy burn site is located 9.9 miles (16 km) east of Quincy, California in the Massak Unit on the Quincy Ranger District, Plumas National Forest.

PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY:
Challenge Site: Prefire overstory was dominated by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana). Common prefire plant associates include tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflora), incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), and bear clover (Chamaebatia foliolosa). The site is described as productive.

Quincy Site: Prefire stands were dominated by ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi), and Douglas-fir. Common associates included black oak (Quercus kelloggii), incense-cedar, and prostrate ceanothus (Ceanothus prostratus). This site is less productive than the Challenge Site.

TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE:

SITE DESCRIPTION:
Challenge site:

Quincy site:

FIRE DESCRIPTION:
Challenge Site:

Quincy Site:

FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES:

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS
• IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE AND LIVESTOCK
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Porcupine browse deerbrush stems. Gambel quail have been observed eating large quantities of the seed [13].

Palatability and nutritional value: Deerbrush is highly palatable to ungulates [66,73].

Deerbrush leaves are high in protein, and calcium levels are high in both leaves and twigs. However, based on the nutritional standard for lactating cows, deerbrush provides inadequate levels of phosphorus and digestible energy. Overall, browse quality decreases from late spring to late summer. On the Sierra National Forest, nutritional quality of deerbrush browse varied significantly by year, but not by shrub age or degree of overstory canopy closure. Average nutritional content of deer brush, collected every 2 weeks from June 1 to September 8, 1982 and 1983, follows. Data are means (standard errors) [43].

Average protein content of deerbrush collected from various California locations varied seasonally as follows [11]:

Cover value: No information was available on this topic as of 1997.

Miwok Indians of California made baskets from deerbrush branches [5].

Deerbrush can outcompete conifer seedlings for root space, water, and nutrients. Plantation conifers have generally shown better growth with deerbrush control [27,35,52]. Deerbrush may not adversely affect natural conifer regeneration, however. Griffin [28] reported that after severe, stand-replacing wildfire on the Los Padres National Forest, sugar and Coulter pine establishment was more successful in the presence of deerbrush than on sites where deerbrush was absent.

Chemical control: Amitrole (95-98 %), 2,3,6-TBA (80-95 %) and 2,4-D (90-100 %) give good to excellent control of deerbrush [69,87]. (Percent control obtained on Oregon shrubfields and timberlands is given in parenthesis [69].)

REFERENCES:

1. Adams, Lowell. 1962. Planting depths for seeds of three species of Ceanothus. Res. Note PSW-194. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 3 p. [6356]

2. Allen, Barbara H.; Bartolome, James W. 1989. Cattle grazing effects on understory cover and tree growth in mixed conifer clearcuts. Northwest Science. 63(5): 214-220. [10932]

3. Allen, Barbara H.; Holzman, Barbara A.; Evett, Rand R. 1991. A classification system for California's hardwood rangelands. Hilgardia. 59(2): 1-45. [17371]

4. Anderson, John Melvin. 1985. Effects of prescribed burning on shrub seed stored in the duff and soil of a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Berkeley, CA: University of California. 39 p. Thesis. [28337]

5. Anderson, Kat. 1991. Wild plant management: cross-cultural examples of the small farmers of Jaumave, Mexico, and the southern Miwok of the Yosemite region. Arid Lands Newsletter. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona, Office of Arid Lands Studies. 31: 18-23. [17350]

6. Arbaugh, Michael J.; Peterson, David L. 1993. Stemwood production patterns in ponderosa pine: effects of stand dynamics and other factors. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-217. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 11 p. [23873]

7. Atzet, Thomas; Wheeler, David L. 1982. Historical and ecological perspectives on fire activity in the Klamath Geological Province of the Rogue River and Siskiyou National Forests. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 16 p. [6252]

8. Bartolome, James, W.; Kosco, Barbara H. 1982. Estimating browse production by deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus). Journal of Range Management. 35(5): 671-672. [6354]

9. Benseler, Rolf Wilhelm. 1968. Studies in the reproductive biology of Aesculus californica (Spach) Nutt. Berkeley, CA: University of California. 155 p. Dissertation. [18978]

10. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

11. Bissell, Harold D.; Strong, Helen. 1955. The crude protein variations in the browse diet of California deer. California Fish and Game. 41(2): 145-155. [10524]

12. Biswell, H. H. 1958. The use of fire in California chaparral for game habitat improvement. In: Proceedings: Society of American Foresters meeting; 1957 November 10-13; Syracuse, NY. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters: 151-155. [12149]

13. Biswell, H. H. 1960. Prescribed burning and other methods of deer range improvement in ponderosa pine in California. In: Proceedings, annual meeting of the Society of American Foresters; 1959 November 15-19; San Francisco, CA. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 102-105. [5269]

14. Biswell, H. H.; Gilman, J. H. 1961. Brush management in relation to fire and other environmental factors on the Tehama deer winter range. California Fish and Game. 47(4): 357-389. [6275]

15. Biswell, Harold H. 1974. Effects of fire on chaparral. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 321-364. [14542]

16. Bolsinger, Charles L. 1989. Shrubs of California's chaparral, timberland, and woodland: area, ownership, and stand characteristics. Res. Bull. PNW-RB-160. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Experiment Station. 50 p. [7426]

17. Bormann, Bernard T. 1988. A masterful scheme: Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing plants of the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Arboretum Bulletin. 51(2): 10-14. [6796]

18. Botti, Stephen. 1979. Natural, conditional, and prescribed fire management plan. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park. 51 p. [20901]

19. Burcham, L. T. 1974. Fire and chaparral before European settlement. In: Rosenthal, Murray, ed. Symposium on living with the chaparral: Proceedings; 1973 March 30-31; Riverside, CA. San Francisco, CA: The Sierra Club: 101-120. [4669]

20. Carmichael, R. S.; Knipe, O. D.; Pase, C. P.; Brady, W. W. 1978. Arizona chaparral: plant associations and ecology. Res. Pap. RM-202. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 16 p. [3038]

21. Conard, Susan G.; Jaramillo, Annabelle E.; Cromack, Kermit, Jr.; Rose, Sharon, compilers. 1985. The role of the genus Ceanothus in western forest ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-182. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 72 p. [668]

22. Cronemiller, Fred P. 1959. The life history of deerbrush-a fire type. Journal of Range Management. 12: 21-25. [4811]

23. Davis, E. A. 1989. Prescribed fire in Arizona chaparral: effects on stream water quality. Forest Ecology and Management. 26: 189-206. [6409]

24. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

25. Fessenden, R. J. 1979. Use of actinorrhizal plants for land reclamation and amenity planting in the U.S.A. and Canada. In: Gordon, J. C.; Wheeler, C. T.; Perry, D. A., eds. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in the management of temperate forests: Proceedings of a workshop; 1979 April 2-5; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory: 403-419. [4308]

26. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

27. Greiman, Harley L. 1988. Sheep grazing in conifer plantations. Rangelands. 10(3): 99-101. [5411]

28. Griffin, James R. 1982. Pine seedlings, native ground cover, and Lolium multiflorum on the Marble-Cone burn, Santa Lucia Range, California. Madrono. 29(3): 177-188. [4935]

29. Hall, Frederick C. 1998. Pacific Northwest ecoclass codes for seral and potential natural communities. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-418. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 290 p. [7650]

30. Hanes, Ted L. 1977. California chaparral. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 417-469. [7216]

31. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]

32. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

33. Holland, Robert F. 1986. Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial natural communities of California. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Fish and Game. 156 p. [12756]

34. Howard, Janet L. 1997. [Personal observation]. September 2. Regarding inability of old Ceanothus intergerrimus to sprout. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. In FEIS log book. On file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; FEIS files. [83782]

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